Genre Structure Research Articles

Video Essay about Cinema: Ways of Representing and Interpreting Dominant Content in a Polycode Media Text The object of research in the article was video essays

The object of research in the article was video essays published on the KinoPoisk YouTube channel. A multi-stage methodology for studying polycode media text was proposed, which is characterized by a system of applied techniques: genre, structural-semantic, conceptual analysis of media text; methodology for analyzing the polycode structure of a media text. Using the example of the analysis of the video essay «Why One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest is a Great Cinema», the constitutive genre features of the media genre, which are determined by the content dominants of the media text, are highlighted: title/title (sometimes subtitle) of the video essay; the compositional division of the video essay into parts, which are also given headings – this structure organizes the narrative of the video essay; description (annotation) of the video and time codes where the headings of the parts are written; movie quotes (visuals); fragments of the original soundtrack of the quoted films; musical accompaniment of video essay; semantically and stylistically complicated voice-over text (with the obligatory use of intertextual signs of various types); specific installation. The multi-level semantic structure of the video essay was studied and it was concluded that the content dominant of the video essay being studied is the concept of «Freedom» – one of the basic linguocultural concepts of the Russian language picture of the world. It has been established that the leading code through which the dominant content of a video essay is interpreted is verbal, supported and reinforced by other codes and subcodes of the polycode structure of the media genre. The analysis of the media text allows us to conclude that the author’s selection of film works, interpretation and interpretation of their content dominants, the tone of the discussion, «fitting» the film into the historical and cultural context, objectification of the value system of the collective author allows one to effectively influence the worldview of the mass addressee, forming and/or reframing his ideas about key ethical and cultural concepts, about historical and modern realities and events.

Жанровое своеобразие романа А. Варламова «Затонувший ковчег»

The article is devoted to the genre analysis of the novel “The Sunken ark” by A. Varlamov, this aspect is practically not studied in modern literary studies. As a result of the study it is determined that the polyphony of the novel was influenced by the inclusion of hagiography, parable, eschatological myth in its genre structure. The eschatological myth determined the plot line of the novel. The parable is connected with the characterological conflict in the novel, as the characters express their position on many issues of existence. The hagiography influences the content level of the work: religious motifs, chronotope, the presence of a hero – a saint.

MITRUSH KUTELI SI RRËFIMTAR DHE TRANSFORMIMET ZHANRORE

The influence of folklore in literature is not a new or unknown phenomenon, nor has it been so for Albanian writers between the two World Wars. Mitrush Kuteli is known as one of the first founders of Albanian prose of modernism, but at the same time, he is also known as a master storyteller who transcends genre structures and reintroduces popular motifs in the form of literary invariants. We say in the form of literary invariants because despite the literary processing he undertakes, the essence of folk ballads, songs, and tales remains unchanged, preserving even the unmotivated compositional ruptures and filling them with authorial artistic interventions such as descriptions, phraseologies, parodies, etc. However, we do not see attempts at alienating subjects and hypertextual transformations, which implies that Kuteli’s aim was the actualization of folk literature with fidelity to compositional construction, character functions, narrative balances, and the fundamental ideas of the processed material.

Application of Schema Theory in English Reading Comprehension Teaching in Senior High School

English reading is a basic language skill, and the level of English reading comprehension is directly related to the level of learners’ language ability. In recent years, the new curriculum standards and the new college entrance examination reform have put forward higher requirements for high school students’ English reading comprehension ability. However, English teachers pay much more attention to vocabulary, sentence patterns and grammar knowledge, and to some extent neglect the cultivation of the cultural knowledge, genre structure and reading strategies at present. English reading teaching based on schema theory emphasizes linguistic knowledge as the basis, activating the existing schema, enriching the background knowledge and grasping the discourse structure, so as to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the text. Therefore, this paper combines schema theory with English reading teaching, and analyzes how to effectively use schema theory to help students effectively read and improve their reading ability from three stages: before reading, while reading and after reading.

Specifics of the embodiment of European genre models in Chinese piano music as the basis of performance stylistics

Statement of the problem. A performer who gives “new life" to a composer’s work lets the sound world of music pass through him. In this process, the genre-stylistic “inclination” of the work becomes a signpost on the way to the realization and improvement of its performance style. The article accents the significant of the relating the genre and performance stylistics. From this viewpoint, the Chinese piano works based on the European genre models are considered in the article. Objectives, methods, and novelty of the research. The relationship between the genre and the performance style of the piano works of Chinese composers has been out of the focus of musicologists’ attention until today. The purpose of the article is to consider the specifics of the embodiment of European genre models (such as prelude, sonata, variations) in Chinese piano music as the basis of their performance stylistics. Achieving the goal required a systematic musicological approach and the involvement of historical-typological, musicalaesthetic, genre-stylistic, structural-functional, and interpretative research methods. Research results and conclusion. The samples of Chinese piano music (preludes, sonatas, variations) demonstrate that the specified group of works preserved their constant genre features, while the nationally directed means of expression were adapted to the norms of the European genre matrix, which in many ways contradicted the national ideas and mental foundations of Chinese musical art. The piano prelude genre has become very popular in the works of Chinese composers. All elements of the national musical style, closely related to the deep roots of Chinese musical and, more broadly, artistic thinking, are involved in the process of “concentrating” energy in miniature form with special laconic and aphoristic expression. The complex large-scale structure of the sonata genre promotes the principle of “activity”, offering the performer various musical ideas and emotions. The mental foundations of Chinese art were significantly adapted, especially in the first part – the sonata allegro, where tonal, figurative and textural contrast is the basis of the interaction of themes. New methods of folklore implementation, in which the role of language-creating and form-creating attitudes is growing, have a perceptible influence on the sonata work of Chinese composers. The European genre model of variations reveals new prospects for its development in combination with a freer national model of variations inherent in Chinese music. There is a peculiar “rational” approach to free variation, “ordering” according to the textural, tonal, figurative principle. Thus, the ccomposers try to “inscribe” national mode and intonation means of expression and performance techniques into the structure of the European genre. At the same time, under the influence of the Chinese traditional system of thinking, European genre models receive a certain “national” interpretation, although the features of a specific sample of the European genre remain as dominant, which determines the style of performing these composition. Such works – diverse and interesting – serve to develop the pianist’s performance skills and gain the widest recognition in the repertoire of many contemporary performers.

Central Asia in Russian descriptions of the 18<sup>th</sup> century: On an anonymous note from the non-church calendar of the Enlightenment Era

There is a lot of interest in travelogue in the research environment today. Russian oriental travelogues, associated with the Central Asian region, have not been studied sufficiently before, besides a certain number of substantive works primarily of a historiographical nature. A special body of problems here is related to the origins of the Russian Central Asian travelogue formation as a genre structure. One of the texts, related to the “origins of the genre” and taken for consideration in this article, is a note by an anonymous author-compiler entitled “News of Bukharia”, published in the “Monthly Historical and Geographical Dictionary for 1779” (St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences). The article is a kind of commentary on this note. We characterize the journal in which it was presented – the printed secular calendar of the 18th century, it differs from the religious ones. The article determines historical, cultural, landscape and geographical realities, reflected in it, and identifies the ideological position of the compiler in the context of the eastern imperial policy of those years. We cautiously assume that when writing the text, the author could use materials on Central Asia from Western sources. There is no literary element as such in the described note. This is not a travelogue in the exact meaning of the term, but a concise informative essay on a regional topic, in which, however, there is no strategy for an objective scientific narrative (“pure curiosity”). We can clearly see the journalistic (state) ideologems of its era, combining the economic aspirations of Russia and its geopolitical attitudes (it is significant that in the note the reader he does not even find any ethnographic images of Central Asian people, their portraits, morals and everyday habits). At the same time, the text of the “News of Bukharia” includes separate general literary components– strict composition, laconism of speech style and logical sequence. The text is important as an early stage in the formation of a scientific and artistic Central Asia modus, as a phenomenon of “documentary literature”, not “fictional literature”.

Values in the protocol genre in the official business substyle of the religious functional style

The subject of the study is the specificity of values in the official business protocols used in the religious documents. The object of the study is the protocols of the religious style. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the category and compositions that form the valuable potential of the protocol genre in the religious sphere, focuses on key axiologems reflecting traditional religious attitudes. Special attention is paid to the category of composition of the protocol genre, which reflects the development of the topic and, accordingly, assessments in a religious functional style. The composition of the protocol in the religious style almost completely coincides with the explication of the composition in the secular version of the official business style and includes the following parts: a statement, or substantive (listened to), in which the topic is stated, and a final, or certifying (decided). The difference between the compositional structure of the protocol genre in the official business substyle of the religious functional style consists in the presence of a variable stating part of the judgment. The research is carried out using the categorical-textual method developed at the Ural Scientific School of Linguoculturology and Stylistics. The textual categories of composition and evaluation are explicated in the studied texts in a certain specific way, which makes it possible to attribute these texts to the genre of protocol. The main conclusions of the study are that the protocol genre reflects axiological religious attitudes in a religious style, including gratitude, respect for life, care for vulnerable groups of the population, the spirit of self-sacrifice, anti-discrimination ideas, mercy, forgiveness, etc., which are concentrated in the compositional stating and final parts of the text. The novelty of this study largely lies in the lack of knowledge of the genre of protocol in the religious functional style. The Church, as a public organization, needs to record information about key events and decisions taken. To this end, the church uses the protocol genre as a tool to ensure the completeness of the stored information. However, there are practically no studies devoted to the genre of protocol, which to a certain extent limits our knowledge of the religious functional style. The present study aims to eliminate this shortcoming and fill the existing gap in the description of the protocol genre in the religious sphere. The study of the protocol genre in the religious sphere on a categorical-textual basis is being carried out for the first time.

A Study of Appraisal System and Its Texture/Textuality Mechanisms

Language, as a social symbol, functions to express world experiences, construct social role relationships, and choose words and sentences to organize discourse. The interaction between language meta-functions is a problem deserved studying. From the perspective of textual meta-function, this paper tries to discuss the mechanisms of organizing Appraisal system as a texture, and construct a rather comprehensive analysis framework of the textual devices for evaluation meaning as a whole text. The framework built consists of three strata (contextual, discourse-semantic, and lexico-grammatical), two dimensions (micro and macro), and an intermediary variable (rhetorical strategies). At the contextual stratum, the generic structure of genre and mode of register, through rhetorical strategies, determine the distribution and combination patterns of evaluative meaning at the discourse-semantic stratum. In micro dimension, cohesion, information distribution pattern, and evaluative prosody, together with theme, new information and logical semantic relations in macro dimension, are combined to organize evaluation meaning at the discourse-semantic stratum. At the lexico-grammatical stratum, Appraisal meaning is thus embodied and realized by the evaluative lexical chains, thematic structures, new information structures, connectives and meta-discourse markers at the discourse-semantic level of a text. This framework reflects the interactions between the interpersonal meta-function and textual meta-function of Appraisal system and provides insights for the development of Appraisal Theory.

A Genre-Analysis of Complaint Letters: A Case Study of English and Arabic Language

The study purports to examine the generic structure of complaint letters among natives and non-natives of English. A corpus of 80 letters was collected from Algerian Arabic users, EFL learners as well as American and British native speakers of English. The researcher provided the participants with three complaint situations, and they were required to choose only one and write a complaint letter about it. Our analysis drew upon Swales (1990) and Bhatia’s (1993) approach to genre analysis to describe to move structure of such genre. The results revealed that complaint letters in Arabic and English adhere to the same generic structure composed of seven moves and fifteen steps. It was found that several factors, particularly culture, and the correspondents’ social rank significantly influence the overall structure of complaint letters.

SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM OF PRZEMYSLAW LIS-MARKIEWICZ’S NOVELS

The work outlines the artistic space-time as an author's model of the world, its main features and functioning in the works of the contemporary Polish writer Przemysław Lis‑Markiewicz. The paradigm of space-time discourse is studied on the basis of the novels "Confession of the Spirit" and "Moskal". The article indicates that the plot of novels by Przemysław Lis‑Markiewicz, which also depict Ukrainian history, unfolds in a linear perspective, each chapter is marked with dates according to the calendar time. The works synthesize calendar, event and perceptual time. The spatial picture of the works is built on open and closed models of the world, macro- and microcosm. The study of the implementation specifics for the concepts of time and space made it possible to point out the relationship between the historical / character chronotope, the role of retrospection and prospection in the novels of the Polish artist. The chronotope of novels is determined by the narrative strategy, the author's intention, and the genre structure. "Confession of the Spirit" is perceived as the author's attempt to understand the formation of personality in the complex period of social and political events of the late 19th – 20th centuries and is defined as a novel-biography. The novel "Moskal" is considered as a synthesis of documentary and psychological, which testified the author's attention to social and political, spiritual problems of a person in a border situation, a historical and political novel. The article traces peculiarities of the artistic interpretation of Ukrainian geographical and cultural spaces, realized in artistic works. The space-time in the author's novels reflects the essence of the spiritual and material world of the inhabitants of the Ukrainian-Polish border, acts as a marker of the identity of the inhabitants of the region, which appears as a certain palimpsest construction, signifying the memory of Ukrainians and Poles, their narratives. In his novels, Przemysław Lis-Markiewicz unfolds the space of Ukraine in the days of wars or political vicissitudes, emphasizing the tragic pages of history.

A New Historical novel: traditions, evolution and specifics of the genre by the example of Barry Unsworth's novel "Morality Play"

Despite the large number of literary works written, there are still debates in determining the genre structure of the historical novel and the features of its poetics. This is apparently due to the fact that for most experts the focus should traditionally be on history, and not on genre theory. Authors of historical novels help recreate historical images of the past, allowing readers to see the world through the eyes of people who lived in other eras. The historical novel can be both an entertaining genre and a tool for the study of history, stimulating interest in the past and raising important questions about how people lived and acted in different times. Different points of view allow us to better understand the versatility of the genre and its influence both on literature and on the understanding of history and life. The author used the technique of “new historicism” literature. Along with the canons of the historical novel of the 19th century, B. Unsworth resorts to the traditional techniques of the historiographical meta-novel of the postmodern era. This novel represents a new approach to the genre of historical fiction, different from the traditional Walterscottian one. The new historical novel and metaphysical mystery can be viewed through the lens of the new historical novel, which focuses on the historical aspects of the story, accurately recreating the setting of a specific era with each fictional character and event, and taking the reader back to the reality of the 14th century. The murder investigation is an important element of the novel's plot, but it only makes sense if the setting of the era in which everything takes place is recreated. Medieval drama plays an important role here, especially the author's transformation from religious to secular drama. Transformation of genre form is a characteristic feature of modern literature. Barry Unsworth's novels are interesting in that they synthesize several genre combinations and at the same time reproduce aspects of the formation of a new genre for its time – morality tales.

A Genre-Based Analysis of Political Speeches of Selected Pakistani Prime Ministers in The UN General Assembly

This study consists of gender-based exploration of two political speeches that have been delivered by Nawaz Sharif and Imran Khan at the UN General Assembly. This research aims to investigate the cognitive structure of political speeches and uncover the typical strategies employed by selected politicians to achieve their communicative goals. Bhatia's (1993) genre analysis model is taken as theoretical framework. This research is qualitative in nature and it argues that political addresses at the UN Assembly are followed by certain protocols, which distinguish them as a political subcategory. The findings demonstrate that selected prime ministers conform to this genre's structure to advance their political agendas. Additionally, it reveals that both chosen speakers employ similar strategies for the argumentative aspect of their speeches, choosing strategies based on their respective communicative objectives. It is anticipated that this research will pave a road for upcoming scholars by providing novel insights about usefulness of genre analysis in multiple contexts and it also helps them to get a lucid understanding of the political goals and the projected perception of Pakistan on the global stage.

MEDIATEXTOLOGY: A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF THE MODERN MEDIA LANGUAGE FORMAT AND GENRE DIVERSITY

The purpose of this article is to present the basics of a systematic integrated approach to the study of the format and genre diversity of modern media speech, designed within the framework of a separate direction of media linguistic research - media textology. The relevance of the development of media textology as an independent direction is due to the rapid diversification of the format and genre structure of the modern media language under the influence of constant improvement of information and communication technologies and the emergence of new multimedia opportunities for the creation and distribution of media content. The theoretical and methodological apparatus of media textology is built on the basis of previous experience in typological description of speech media practices, taking into account the dynamics of media speech, the spread of new forms of media content representation and the peculiarities of its structuring, including the tendency to hybridization and convergence. The key principle of mediatextology is the selection of media texts proper from the set of texts functioning on the Internet, i.e. those that are created by professional journalists for online media and form the basic media content. Unlike other types of network texts created and distributed by individual users on various network platforms for personal purposes, network media texts are produced and distributed on media platforms that have the status of an official mass media.

The Textual Organisation of CJEU Judgments

AbstractThis research paper focuses on the comprehensive description and analysis of the structure of judgments from the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). Despite the growing interest in examining the rhetorical and linguistic aspects of legal texts, the genre structure of judgments has remained a little-explored area. While headings and paragraph enumeration provide a systematic reference system for citation and cross-referencing they do not reveal the dynamic relations between individual text chunks in judgments. The current analysis combines Swales and Bhatia's genre theory with Hoey's approach to patterning in discourse and corpus linguistics analyses. The findings show that the complexity of CJEU judgments extends beyond surface-level information with linguistic expressions playing a crucial role in highlighting dynamic relations and discourse patterning. The results reveal how the structure of CJEU judgments has changed over time and point to the intratextual relations between different sections. Additionally, the study provides a detailed description of the textual organisation of CJEU judgments in terms of move structures and conventionalised discourse patterns.

Stage Repertoire of the Soviet Regional Theater During the Period of Late Socialism

Relevance. Addressing the repertoire policy of theaters is relevant due to the fact that the study of the repertoire allows us to trace not only the main directions of artistic processes, but also the specifics of social changes of the era being studied.Purpose of the study: to study the specifics of the process of formation and implementation of the stage repertoire of theaters in the Urals in the political and ideological conditions of «developed socialism».Objectives. To achieve the research goal, the following tasks were formulated: to characterize the general principles of the formation of the stage repertoire and the practical mechanism for its compilation; study the themes and genre structure of the repertoire plans of regional theaters in the late Soviet period.Methodology. The methodological basis of the study was a systemic-historical approach, which allows us to study repertory policy as a system functioning in the socio-political environment of the era of late socialism.Results. The stage repertoire was an expression of the creative search of theater groups, carried out in conditions of compromise with the official policy of the state, the ruling party and the natural course of the artistic and aesthetic process. From the point of view of ideology and adherence to party guidelines, «mature ideological and artistic» and «box office» works stood out in the repertoire plans of theaters. The leading place was occupied by the plays of modern Soviet playwrights. The national orientation of the theaters of the multinational Urals was manifested in the embodiment of the works of national playwrights on the stages. A feature of the era was the introduction of plays for children and youth into the repertoire of not only theaters specializing in youth audiences, but also opera and drama groups.Conclusion. The repertoire of the Ural theaters was represented by a variety of works and was built taking into account the requirements of the era. The implementation of the repertoire policy of theaters contributed to the involvement of various socio-demographic groups of the population in the theatrical process, the expansion and complexity of the cultural space of the era under study.

NEW APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION THEORY AND PRACTICE (FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF CREATING AN EXERCISE BOOK “FOUNDATIONS OF WRITTEN TRANSLATION PRACTICE FROM GERMAN INTO RUSSIAN LANGUAGE”)

The paper discusses the conceptual foundations of a modern exercise book designed to train translators working with the most popular German-language genres, which include journalistic discourse, which is represented by extensive corpora of texts. The authors describe the key linguistic problems and factors influencing the quality of written translation from a foreign language into Russian. The most important factors seem to be logical, institutional, economic and social ones. Their totality largely determines the genre structure and belonging of the text to a certain type of discourse. In the course of the analysis of linguistic means and external factors, the authors come to the conclusion that it is necessary to develop a series of exercise books on the theory and practice of translation aimed at solving specific translation problems and developing specific knowledge, skills and abilities to work with foreign cultural content containing ideological and value components, conflictogenic factors, and subject to the influence of ambisemia. To comprehensively solve the problems associated with the preparation of translators, it is proposed to apply a systematic approach that integrates logical, institutional, economic and social factors.

The Use of Interactional Metadiscourse Markers in the Discussion Section of Master’s Theses Written in English by Algerian Students: An Investigation of Gender Variation

Metadiscourse analysis plays an important role in exploring the rhetorical structure of different academic genres including master’s theses. Gender differences in writing the discussion section within this genre has been unexplored in the Algerian setting. Therefore, this study employs Hyland’s framework of metadiscourse (2005) to investigate gender variation in Algerian master’s theses discussion sections written in English within the field of applied linguistics. It seeks to examine possible similarities and differences in the use of interactional resources across the two gender groups. A mixed-methods approach was opted for to study the frequency and functions of these resources. The findings revealed a higher frequency of occurrence of interactional markers among female writers. Attitude markers were the most preferred interactional resources for both groups of writers with more diversity of lexical choices noticed within the female sub-corpus. Hedges were also significantly frequent among females while males exhibited more preference for using boosters. Self-mentions and engagement markers were found to be the least used interactional categories among both genders. This study also revealed that interactional metadiscourse markers perform different rhetorical functions in the discussion of master’s theses. Keywords: Applied linguistics, Discussion sections, Gender differences, Interactional resources, Metadiscourse

Трансформация литературных и фольклорных жанровых структур в «Сказке об Иване-дураке...» Л. Н. Толстого (1885-1886)

The study aims to shed light on the peculiarities of transformation of literary and folklore genre structures in the literary fairy tale “Ivan the Fool” by Leo Tolstoy (1885-1886). The paper reveals the genre polyphony of this literary fairy tale by Tolstoy in comparison of its content with the problems of the philosophical novella of Voltaire, the social utopia of Th. More, F. Bacon and Plato, with the poetics of folklore (fairy tales, epics, riddles) and the military novella. The scientific novelty of the paper lies in determining the connection between Tolstoy’s artistic “ideas” in “Ivan the Fool” and the humanistic principle of his religious, philosophical and journalistic writings of the 1880s and 1900s (pacifism, criticism of historical forms of slavery, advocacy of nonviolence and universal love); in providing a historical and theoretical literary substantiation of the genre genesis of Tolstoy’s tale. As a result of the study, the genre form of Tolstoy’s literary fairy tale was characterized as a complex structure combining features of different types of literary creativity. The methods of artistic solution in this work containing socio-philosophical and ethical issues peculiar to philosophical novellas, social utopias and folk tales were classified. Scientific knowledge about folklore and ancient Russian reception in the plot, themes, images and details was supplemented with new facts.

Вопросы отражения исторических событий в сюжете и образная система произведения

The research aims to determine the role and significance of historical events and facts in the poetics of a literary work. Undoubtedly, any work is based to one degree or another on the factual material of our lives. It may have private or public significance. Often, such factual or historical materials become a way for a writer to visually illustrate a certain (main or secondary) idea. The paper analyzes the works in which the historical development of the country becomes the plot of the narrative. In the literary studies of the 20th century, such works were traditionally defined as historical novels. The scientific novelty of the research is connected with the need to specify the genre structure of the historical novel and to determine the aesthetic significance of the use of historical material in modern novels. This problem is connected with the need to comprehend the artistic and historical reality and historical truth in the plot of a literary work. As a result, it has been proved that the historical reality recreated by the writer in a particular work is not a mirror image of the historical path of the country and the people; in a literary work, it becomes the author’s subjective reaction to certain historical events.

Функциональная роль границы в жанровой традиции романа воспитания (на материале модернистской прозы 1910-1920-х гг.)

The paper studies the phenomenon of a boundary in the Russian modernist prose of the 1910s-1920s (in the novels “Petersburg” by A. Bely, “We” by Ye. Zamyatin and the novella “The Childhood of Luvers” by B. Pasternak), which makes it possible to determine its functional role in the genre structure of the Bildungsroman. The aim of the research is to identify the functional role of the phenomenon of a boundary. Scientific novelty is accounted for by the fact that the paper is the first to consider the phenomenon of a boundary as a structural part of the Bildungsroman determining the gradual development of the hero’s personality. As a result, firstly, based on Yu. M. Lotman’s research, the types of boundaries represented in the modernist prose of the 1910s-1920s gravitating towards the Bildungsroman tradition (spatial, public (social) / familial, eschatological, ethical, psychological, threshold boundaries) were revealed. Secondly, it was found that a boundary is a fundamentally significant structural element of the Bildungsroman genre contributing to the protagonist’s gradual understanding of themself and the world: the hero’s acquisition of their own “self” and the program of their education are embodied by overcoming boundaries as a consistent feature of the Bildungsroman.