Strong Son Preference Research Articles

Population policy, son preference and the use of IUDs in North Vietnam

This paper discusses contraceptive use and discontinuation among women in north Vietnam, in the context of a strong cultural preference for sons and astringent two-child population policy. Among a random sample of 1432 married women aged 15–49 in a rur al province in north Vietnam in 1994, nearly 60 percent used the intrauterine device (IUD) for contraception; other modern methods were hardly used at all. Overall discontinuation rates were high -nearly 45 per cent after three years; the most common reason was expulsion. Women without sons reported significantly higher rates of IUD discontinuation due to expulsion and contraceptive failure than women who had a son. We interpreted this as an indication that women without sons had deliberately removed the IUD and reported this as an expulsion or contraceptive failure, in hopes of satisfying their families' wish for a son, while avoiding the criticism of deliberately exceeding the two-child limit. Assessments ofmedical technology usually consider only clinical and service aspects. A gender analysis of contraceptive effectiveness data that also takes into account the social, cultural and political context can offer insights into the complexities of women's reproductive lives and the contradictory demands on their fertility.

Desired Family Size and Son Preference Among Hispanic Women of Low Socioeconomic Status

Among 432 Hispanic women aged 18-50 interviewed at a Los Angeles obstetrics and gynecology clinic, respondents reported wanting an average of 2.8 sons but only 0.1 daughters. Being older than 30, having no more than an eighth grade education, being separated, divorced or widowed, being Spanish-speaking or having been born outside the United States, and having a large family of origin were all positively associated with a desire for a greater number of sons. A multivariate analysis indicated that women who preferred to speak Spanish were 10.9 times as likely as those who preferred English to desire a greater number of sons, and those with more children were 2.5 times as likely as those with fewer children to have a strong desire for sons. Family planning programs for Hispanics may be more effective if they acknowledge this important motive for childbearing.

Son Preference and Differential Treatment in Morocco and Tunisia

This report investigates the links between son preference and differential treatment of children by analyzing data from the Demographic and Health Surveys of Morocco and Tunisia, two countries that are thought to vary considerably regarding indicators of gender. The analyses find no significant differences in either country in the duration and intensity of breastfeeding and small differences in favor of boys in Tunisia regarding immunization and the treatment of diarrhea. These findings, which are, to some degree, unexpected, are discussed in light of other research relevant to son preference in the two countries.

Strong Son Preference Among Nepalese Couples May Outweigh Their Desire For Smaller Families

This report presents findings from a study of son and fertility preferences in rural Chitwan district of southern Nepal. Interviews were conducted among a district-wide cluster sample of 769 currently married women and coresident husbands (subsample of 601 wives and coresident husbands). The Multiple Response Fertility Preference (MRFP) Scale was administered to all respondents who reported an ideal family size of three or fewer children (85% of the full sample). Researchers found that over 50% reported an ideal family size of two children. Over 30% reported an ideal of three children. 45% desired one son. Almost 50% desired two sons. About 70% desired at least one daughter. 14% desired no daughters. The MRFP asked respondents to indicate preferences based on two pictures: one depicted a completed family with the ideal family size but not the preferred number of sons; the other depicted a larger than ideal family size with the preferred number of sons. Respondents were also asked to chose between three hypothetical completed families: a family with one more child than the ideal; a family with twice the ideal size; and a family with six children. Men and women both chose families larger than the stated ideal. 66% of wives and 79% of husbands chose a family with the desired number of sons and one child over the ideal family size compared to the ideal family size and no sons. 34% of wives and 47% of husbands chose a family twice the desired size. 21% of wives and 33% of husbands chose a six-child family. Respondents who desired two sons chose larger families than those who desired only one son. 54% of wives and 43% of husbands chose to have one less son rather than a larger family and their son preference. 70% accepted the ideal family size without a daughter. As the number of sons rose sterilization increased. The researcher points out that a few questions about son and ideal preferences mask spouse differences and a comprehensive view.

Son preference and the sex ratio at birth in China: a provincial level analysis.

In this paper we use data from the 1 Per Cent Sample of the 1990 Census of China to calculate sex ratios for the Chinese provinces that are specific not only to parity, but also to the sex composition of previously-born children. We analyze the degree of relationship among and between the SRB's and then consider the phenomenon of son preference. We find the variation in sex ratios at birth among the Chinese provinces is related in an important way to variation among the provinces in the degree of son preference. Our analysis shows abnormally high SRB's in most of the provinces of China, especially at parities 2 and higher when the prior births were daughters. Other societies, namely Taiwan and South Korea, with rapid fertility decline and strong son preference also manifest abnormally high SRB's at parities beyond the first.

On Substituting Sex Preference Strategies in East Asia: Does Prenatal Sex Selection Reduce Postnatal Discrimination?

It is argued that prenatal sex selection may potentially reduce postnatal sex discrimination. The preliminary findings in this analysis support this substitution hypothesis and suggest consideration of policy change. Policy change would include a shift to socioeconomic policies that might reduce all forms of discrimination against daughters. It is argued that banning sex selective abortion might lead to increased early childhood mortality. The moral acceptability needs to be weighed by policymakers about whether it is better to have 1000 sex selective abortions or 10 female childhood deaths due to postnatal neglect or just 1 postnatal female death/1000 sex selective abortions. The substitution hypothesis is supported in the literature by studies of daughters survival probabilities by Muhuri and Preston or Kishor. Reference is made to Scrimshaws suggestion that greater suffering occurs for infants children and even adults when infanticide does not take place. Other empirical support for the substitution hypothesis is given. It is argued that despite the deficiencies the sex ratio at birth is a good measure of sex preference. Sharp increases in the sex ratio in countries with a strong preference for sons indicate the availability and use of sex-selective abortion. Gender-based mortality and sex ratio patterns are described for Korea Taiwan China and Malaysia.

Gender Inequality and Fertility in Two Nepali Villages

This study supports the authors argument that greater autonomy for women lowers fertility by reducing the desire for more children increasing contraceptive use and lowering the level of unmet need for contraception. Social context in general and gender inequality in particular are important determinants of fertility behavior. The theoretical strategy relies on the quasi-anthropological approach of Smith (1989). Surveys were conducted in two villages in Nepal Bagahi and Benighat both patriarchal but only the former practicing purdah (the seclusion of women). The research strategy controlled for demographic and socioeconomic setting in order to demonstrate the importance of different cultural and institutional contexts. The two settings reflect the more flexible social traditions of Hinduism (Benighat) which was influenced historically by Tibetan Buddhism and the more rigid Hinduism of the plains (Bagahi) which was influenced by Islam. The caste system is more rigid and more complex in Bagahi. In Benighat women have more freedom to visit a neighboring village involvement in household decision making and control of income. Surveys were conducted in early 1993 and supplemented with in-depth case studies interviews and observations. Survey responses were consistent with expectations. 31% of women in Benighat and 42% in Bagahi intended to have additional children. 40% in Benighat and 24% in Bagahi used contraception. 59% in Bagahi and 45% in Benighat intended no additional children and were not currently using contraception (unmet need). Findings indicate a stronger son preference in Bagahi and greater likelihood of contraceptive use among women with at least two sons. Women in Benighat who desired no more children were 1.8 times more likely to use contraception and on the four point autonomy scale for every higher stage the odds of contraceptive use increased by a factor of 1.29. The net effects of the setting reduced use by a factor of 0.83 to 1.5 times and the net effect of a step on the autonomy scale was reduced by a factor of 0.89 to 1.15 times.

Sex preference in South Asia: Sri Lanka an outlier

At a 1994 symposium on sex preference in Asia, represented countries were grouped as follows: a) rapid fertility decline, strong son preference, and abnormal sex ratio at birth (China, Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea); b) rapid fertility decline, no son preference, and normal sex ratio at birth (Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand); and c) slow fertility decline, strong son preference, and normal sex ratio at birth (Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan). This article reviews the factors responsible for strong son preference in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan and the reasons for the lack of son preference in Sri Lanka. Abnormal sex ratios are attributed to sex-selective abortions. Sex preference in South Asia results in excessive mortality of female children. Mention is made of a higher mortality risk of daughters in Indian households with more older female children. Bairagi is cited for his evidence that in Bangladesh daughters having older sisters have a higher mortality risk. In Pakistan survey results indicate that sons are preferred. Numerous authors are cited for evidence suggesting that fertility might be lower if son preference were reduced. Rajaretnam and Deshpande are cited for findings that contraceptive prevalence in south India would increase by about 12% in high-prevalence areas and about 25% in low-prevalence areas in the absence of sex preference. Bourne and Walker and Das Gupta are identified as authors providing evidence that increased economic opportunities for women, increased women's status, and increased value placed on women's work would reduce the desire for sons. Cain argues for better old-age security and better access to food and medical care. Abeykoon has shown that weakened son preference in Sri Lanka occurred over a 20-year period as improvements were made in women's status. Parents in Sri Lanka give greater value to the small-family norm than to the sex of the child. A slight preference was found in 1975 and 1992. Discrimination in food and medical care in Sri Lanka was apparent only prior to 1962. Sri Lankan women have experienced rapid expansion of literacy and educational attainment, improved life expectancy, and wide economic involvement. Women in Sri Lanka are also less vulnerable to oppression within the family.

Mother's education and effect of son preference on fertility in Matlab, Bangladesh

This analysis follows earlier research that hypothesized and substantiated that, in a society with strong son preference, its effect on fertility would be conditional on the level of contraceptive use. Present analysis of the prospective fertility experience of 22,819 women of reproductive age during 3.5 years in Matlab, Bangladesh, shows that this effect is higher among mothers with postprimary schooling versus those with primary or no education. The higher effect conforms with the known positive relationship of contraceptive use with maternal schooling. However, this increase when contrasted with the idea that education promotes modern values, including gender equality, suggests that education in Matlab, with its traditional slant, is not resistant to son preference. In a poor, traditional society with low status for women, schooling alone is not enough to motivate women to abandon low esteem for daughters though schooling promotes child survival. But if preference for smaller family size increases, promoted by education including such modern values as gender equality, then sex preference, although it cannot be completely removed, will have minimal effect on fertility as in most developed countries.

Effect of son preference and population policy on sex ratios at birth in two provinces of China

Two samples of births were used to examine the effect of son preference and population policy on sex ratios in Hebei and Shaanxi provinces of China. The results from all births to women aged 15-49 in the 1985 In-Depth Fertility Survey indicated a strong son preference but no clear policy impact on sex ratios at different birth orders. In a sample of selected births during 1975-84 to women aged 40 or under, the mixed influences of son preference and population policy were clearly reflected in the high and rising overall ratios at birth, and the increasing sex ratios with parity. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed.

Contraceptive Use in Matlab, Bangladesh: The Role of Gender Preference

Research in several Asian societies has suggested that sons are generally preferred over daughters. The implications of gender preferences for actual fertility behavior have not been adequately investigated, however. This analysis examines the effect of the sex composition of surviving children on the acceptance and discontinuation of contraception in a sample of 3,145 women in Matlab, Bangladesh, who were observed for 60 months. Hazards regression analyses are employed in the analysis. Strong and highly significant effects of gender preference on contraceptive use are observed. The preference is not monotonically son-biased but is moderated toward a balanced composition, because parents desire to have several sons and at least one daughter. These findings suggest that gender preferences, particularly a preference for sons, represent a significant barrier to fertility regulation in rural Bangladesh.

Impact of a self-reliance programme on family planning activities in Bangladesh

Despite the long history of the family planning programme in Bangladesh, the contraceptive prevalence level remains low and consequently the rate of population growth has remained persistently high. Several factors can be attributed to low contraceptive prevalence. The most important factors are low levels of socio-economic development, the lower status of women, the strong preference for sons, the high level of infant and child mortality and limited access to health and family planning facilities.

Sex preference and fertility behavior: A study of recent Indian data

A preference for sons resulting from traditional religious beliefs social customs (dowry systems lineage familial and kinship ties etc.) and economic benefits including support of aging parents is widespread not only in India but also in many Asian countries. Evidence of son preference by region throughout the world was reviewed by Williamson (1976). Several studies based on data of the 60s and early 70s refer to the strong preference for sons among Indian couples (Bhatia 1978; Freedman and Coombs 1974; Indian Institute of Public Opinion 1967; Kapadia 1966; Lahiri 1974; Poffenberger 1967; Sarma and Jain 1974). This preference is still quite strong; a comparative analysis of 1970 and 1980 India Survey data collected by the Operations Research Group Baroda reveals that it had not changed much during 1970-80. The preference for sons and in fact for at least two sons as a combination is obvious in the data of both years (Das 1984a). There is however little empirical evidence on the extent to which fertility in developing countries like India is directly influenced by the desire for sons or a particular sex composition of children. (authors)

Sex differentials in infant and child mortality in Korea.

This paper reports on a study of infant and child mortality in the Republic of Korea, a country known for a strong son preference, using the 1974 World Fertility Survey data. When the age-specific probabilities of dying for ages 0 to 5 are compared for male and female children, an unusual pattern of relatively high female mortality is observed. The higher female mortality is more pronounced during childhood than during infancy. Multivariate analysis of life tables, using a hazard model, shows that covariates influencing the mortality at young ages differ for male and female children and suggests that male and female children receive unequal care by their parents. The analysis also reveals different patterns of interaction between infant and child mortality and mother's fertility control behavior depending on the sex of the child.

Women's status and fertility in developing countries: Son preference and economic security

The relationship between women's status, which is defined in terms of the degree to which they are economically dependent on men, and fertility in developing countries is examined. The paper adopts a particular theoretical perspective regarding fertility determinants and explores the implications of women's status within that context. This perspectives gives special attention to the value of children as security assets in settings where public welfare assistance is minimal or non-existent and financial and insurance markets are poorly developed. In this context, women's economic status, and the institutional factors that create a degree of dependence, determine the relevance of sex of children in defining security goals. High dependence results is defining security goals in terms of surviving sons. Given similar security needs, and other things being equal, fertility will be considerably higher in settings where there is a strong preference for sons than in settings where son preference is weak. A cross-national empirical analysis is presented that supports this argument.

Measuring the effect of sex preference on fertility: The case of Korea

Preferences for male or female children or a balanced number of sons and daughters are common throughout the world. The dominant preference is for male offspring, particularly in less developed countries. Strong son preference is often tempered, however, by a desire to have at least one child of each sex. In more developed countries a balance preference is more common, often together with a strong preference for the first child to be a son. Although it is usually assumed that sex preference can substantially influence fertility, some analysts argue that the effect is negligible. An intermediate position is taken by those who say that sex preference may not have much impact at high fertility levels, but that as average family sizes begin to fall, sex preference will become a more important factor in fertility decisions. Despite the keen interest that has been shown in sex preference, there is surprisingly little empirical evidence of its effects on fertility. Moreover, much of the research in this area is methodologically weak. The measures that have been used in the past have been subject to a number of criticisms that call their results into question. This paper proposes a new measure of the effect of sex preference on fertility that avoids many of the problems inherent in other methods. The measure is based on widely available survey data on the sex composition of children and can be used with any measure of fertility or family planning. It can handle any type of sex preference and does not assume a linear relationship between sex preference and fertility.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The Single Child Family and its Impact on the Economic Roles of Women in China

Participation in various kinds of production is an important way for women to raise their economic status in China. However, this is dependent on the level of their labour productivity and the speed at which they can be relieved of the heavy burden of domestic responsibilities. The introduction of the single‐child family programme since 1979 should have immense repercussions on women's productive and reproductive roles. This must be accompanied by social change, e.g. the ending of the strong preference for sons, to produce the desired broader sexual equality.

Preference for Sons, Family Size, and Sex Ratio: An Empirical Study in Korea

This study investigates the effects of son preference on sex ratio and fertility at the family level, utilizing World Fertility Survey data for Korea, whose population is known to have a strong preference for sons and a fairly high level of contraceptive use. The sex ratio (number of males per 100 females) of siblings in small families is considerably higher than in large families. The sex ratio of last-born children in families of any size is markedly higher than that of the previous children. The sex distribution of children for a given family size, if less than five, deviates significantly from the Bernoulli sequence. The observed frequency of all-girl families is especially small in comparison with the expected value. The sex of the last child strongly influences couples' decision making regarding additional births in all steps of family building except for bearing a second child. In increasing their families to moderate size, parents appear to take into consideration the sex distribution of all earlier births.

Thailand's Reproductive Revolution

An analysis of the remarkable changes in reproductive patterns underway in Thailand. use has gone up by almost 1 1/2 times (nearly 4 in 10 couples are now using a method); knowledge is close to universal; family size preferences are falling. The changes are most marked among Thailands overwhelmingly rural and poorly educated population. Thus the traditional urban-rural gap in fertility use and knowledge and family size preference is rapidly closing. Although there has been some social and economic improvement the slogan is the best contraceptive cannot explain the reproductive revolution that has occurred. Cultural factors may have played an important role: the relatively high status of Thai women and lack of a strong preference for sons as well as the nature of Thai Buddhism may have helped receptivity. The more rapid fertility decline in the Buddhist north than in the more Moslem south is evidence of cultural factors at work. However the development of a strong nationwide family planning program has had the most impact. The timing of the development of this program and of the rapid fertility decline correspond very closely -- especially in rural areas where the program has been concentrated. It provided services to some 2.6 million couples between 1968 and 1975. There has been a very high rate of continuation in the program and the substantial effect of improved use on fertility has been documented. The authors find a direct relationship between the extent of program activity (on 2 measures pill distribution and new acceptors) and use (as determined in the World Fertility Survey) and an inverse relationship between program activity measures and marital fertility (i.e. the greater the program effort the lower marital fertility).(AUTHOR ABSTRACT)

Son Preference and the Demand for Additional Children in Pakistan

This paper tries to take into account the sequential element in fertility decisions and continues an investigation originally begun by Namboodiri. We examine the extent to which the "desire to have additional children" can be explained by a variety of economic, sociological, and demographic variables. The probit maximum likelihood estimation procedure is utilized, and the analysis is based on cross-sectional data on 2,910 currently married women obtained from a national survey conducted in Pakistan in 1968-1969. The principal finding is the presence of a strong son preference both for the husband and for the wife.