Conditioning Coaches Research Articles

New Movement Practices: A Foucauldian Learning Community to Disrupt Technologies of Discipline

Sociologists of sport and coaching have repeatedly drawn upon the theoretical tools of Michel Foucault to map and critique the negative effects of coaches’ use of disciplinary practices. Three SCCs and two coach developers participated in multiple learning community meetings interrogating Foucault’s concepts to understand how power moves, create new, less disciplinary practices, and address the problems produced by too much discipline. The findings present new conceptual tools to train and move differently by disrupting disciplinary practices: spasmodic tempo training, atemporal training, variable geographic training, variable intra-geographic training, fluid and fragmented periodization, explorative coaching, and strength coach as sage. We call for an appreciation of poststructural informed sport coaching and the development of a discursive sociology of sport coaching praxis.

Validity and Reliability of the Rear Foot Elevated Split Squat 5 Repetition Maximum to Determine Unilateral Leg Strength Symmetry.

Helme, M, Bishop, C, Emmonds, S, and Low, C. Validity and reliability of the rear foot elevated split squat 5 repetition maximum to determine unilateral leg strength symmetry. J Strength Cond Res 33(12): 3269-3275, 2019-The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of the rear foot elevated split squat (RFESS) 5 repetition maximum (5RM) test as a field method for measuring unilateral leg strength symmetry. As a validated method of testing symmetry, the RFESS 5RM may be used by strength and conditioning coaches and sports medicine staff to measure the presence of imbalances with minimal equipment and time. Twenty-six subjects (age = 23.8 ± 4.6 years, mass = 88.1 ± 10.7 kg, and height = 1.79 ± 0.1 m) with a minimum 2 years of strength and conditioning experience were recruited. After a familiarization session, subjects performed an incremental 5RM protocol on both legs, on 2 occasions where 3D motion and force data were collected. Moderate reliability of bar load symmetry was found between test and retest conditions correlation (intraclass coefficient = 0.73, 0.33-0.91) with no proportional bias between sessions. Validation of the exercise was analyzed using a correlation between asymmetries in mean set vertical ground reaction forces (vGRF) of the lead foot during the concentric phase, with bar load. When all maximal trials, from both test conditions, were analyzed, a most likely large positive correlation (0.57, 0.30-0.76) was found for mean set concentric lead foot vGRF. When a threshold level of load symmetry (96.54-103.46%) was applied, a most likely large positive correlation (r = 0.59, 0.14-0.84) between symmetry in lead foot vGRF was found in subjects who exceeded this limit. Conversely, analysis of subjects within the threshold produced unclear correlations. Findings of this study suggest the RFESS is a valid and reliable measure of unilateral leg strength symmetry. Practitioners are recommended to use this exercise to investigate the strength symmetry of athletes, but are guided to note that a threshold level of symmetry (96.54-103.46%) may be required to have been exceeded to indicate a true difference in vGRF production.

THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT SCREENTM, Y-BALANCE TEST, AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE TESTS IN MALE AND FEMALE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES

Poor balance, lack of neuromuscular control, and movement ability are predictors of performance and injury risk in sports and physical activity participation. The Functional Movement Screen™ (FMS™) and lower quarter Y-Balance Test (YBT) have been used by clinicians to evaluate balance, functional symmetry, and static and dynamic movement patterns, yet little information exists regarding the relationship between the FMS™, YBT, and physical performance tests (e.g. vertical jump) within the high school population. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the FMSTM, dynamic balance as measured by the YBT and physical performance tests (standing long jump, vertical jump, Pro Agility Test) in male and female high school athletes. Cohort study. Fifty-six high school athletes (28 females, 28 males; mean age 16.4 ± 0.1) who participated in organized team sports were tested. Participants performed the FMS™, YBT, and three physical performance tests (standing long jump, vertical jump, Pro Agility Test). Females outperformed males on the FMS™ and YBT, while males outperformed females on the performance tests. In both sexes, the composite FMSTM score was positively correlated with the left and composite YBT scores. Agility was negatively correlated with composite FMSTM in males (p < 0.05) and the left and composite YBT in females (p < 0.05). The FMSTM and YBT may evaluate similar underlying constructs in high school athletes, such as dynamic balance and lower extremity power. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of the FMS and YBT to relate multiple constructs of muscular power to an individual's ability to balance. Furthermore, establishing the need for the utilization and application of multiple field-based tests by sports medicine professionals and strength and conditioning coaches when evaluating an athlete's movement and physical performance capabilities. Utilization of multiple field-based tests may provide the first step for the development of injury prevention strategies and long-term athlete development programs. 2b.

Validity and Test-Retest Reliability of the 1080 Quantum System for Bench Press Exercise

Boehringer, S and Whyte, DG. Validity and test-retest reliability of the 1080 Quantum System for bench press exercise. J Strength Cond Res 33(12): 3242-3251, 2019-This study assessed the validity and reliability of the 1080 Quantum (1080Q) during the bench press exercise. Twenty-seven resistance-trained men (28 ± 4 years; body mass 88.9 ± 12.8 kg; 1 repetition maximum [1RM] bench press 94.8 ± 10.7 kg) completed 2 test-retest sessions, separated by 1 week. In each session, subjects performed single repetitions at 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80% of their bench press 1RM. Mean velocity (Vmean), peak velocity (Vpeak), mean force (Fmean), peak force (Fpeak), mean power (Pmean), and peak power (Ppeak) were simultaneously assessed using the 1080Q Synchro and a linear position transducer (GymAware; Kinetic Performance Technology, Canberra, Australia). The overall performance of the 1080Q was both valid (r = 0.94-1.00) and reliable (coefficient of variation [CV] = 1.7-8.0%, intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.90-1.00) for all measures, although both fixed and systematic biases were present. When assessed at each of the relative loads, the 1080Q remained valid for all measures apart from Fmean at 30% 1RM (r = 0.78) and Fpeak at 70 (r = 0.81) and 80% (r = 0.57) 1RM. The 1080Q also demonstrated excellent reliability at all relative loads apart from the heaviest, where Vmean (CV = 11.0%, ICC = 0.69), Pmean (CV = 11.4%, ICC = 0.65), and Ppeak (CV = 10.2%, ICC = 0.79) reliability was reduced. These data indicate that athletes and strength and conditioning coaches can confidently use the 1080Q to monitor training progression; however, caution should be taken when assessing performance measures at the either end of the load spectrum.

Improving Mechanical Effectiveness During Sprint Acceleration: Practical Recommendations and Guidelines

ABSTRACT Sport scientists and strength and conditioning coaches are showing growing interest in the magnitude, orientation, and application of ground reaction force during acceleration actions in sport, as it can identify the key mechanical determinants of performance. Horizontal force-velocity profiling or sprint profiling helps practitioners understand the capacity of the mechanical force production during the acceleration phase of a sprint. This review examines the methods used in the field for determining horizontal force-velocity (sprint) profiles. It also includes recommendations for practical training methods to address individual force-velocity characteristics, mechanical effectiveness, thereby optimizing acceleration performance.

The benefits of Functional Movement Screen in judo

With the development of screening methods, simple screening tools could commonly be used to assess movement quality in real-world conditions. One of those methods is the functional movement screen (FMS), that was developed to helps determine the fundamental movement patterns of an individual. FMS test was administered to 9 elite judokas aged 22 ± 4.24 years, height 176.44 ± 7.44 and weight 79.44 ± 15.92 kg. The overall FMS score was 17.56 ± 1.59. No significant asymmetries were noted in the bilateral test. The lowest score was achieved in shoulder mobility 1.89 ± 0.6 which represent and issue that needs to be addressed to prevent the occurrence of injuries. Overall the FMS testing could be a beneficial tool to strength and conditioning coaches in judo, especially in the preseason to assess the functional movement status of judo athletes and to address any issues that could be identified. It represents a fast and affordable screening tool, but it needs to be administered by a qualified assessor. The data of this study could serve as a reference score to other FMS research in judo or other combat sports or martial arts.

State-of-the-art review of athletic wearable technology: What 113 strength and conditioning coaches and athletic trainers from the USA said about technology in sports

Wearables are a multi-billion-dollar business with more growth expected. Wearable technology is fully entrenched at multiple levels of athletic competition, especially at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and professional levels where these solutions are used to gain competitive advantages by assessing health and performance of elite athletes. However, through the National Science Foundation (NSF) Innovation Corps (I-Corps) training experience, a different story emerged based on pilot interviews from coaches and trainers regarding the lack of trust in wearables, and how the technology falls short of measuring what practitioners need. An NSF I-Corps project was funded to interview over 100 strength and conditioning coaches (S&amp;CCs) and athletic trainers (ATs) regarding the current state of wearables at the NCAA and professional levels. Through 113 unstructured interviews, a conceptual map of relationships amongst themes and sub-themes regarding wearable technology emerged through the grouping of responses into meaning units (MUs). Interview findings revealed that discussions by S&amp;CCs and ATs regarding wearables could be grouped into themes tied to (a) the organizational environment, (b) the athlete, and (c) the analyst or data scientist. Through this project, key findings and lessons learned were aggregated into sub-themes including: the sports ecosystem and organizational structure, brand development, recruiting, compliance and gamification of athletes, baselining movement and injury mitigation, internal and external loads, “return tos,” and quantifying performance. These findings can be used by practitioners to understand general technology practices and where to close the gap between what is available versus what is needed.

Practitioner-Driven Recommendations for the Professional Evaluation of the Strength and Conditioning Coach

ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to provide a practical framework for athletic administrators and senior coaches to use in evaluating a strength and conditioning coach (SCC) under their supervision. A formal objective evaluation process may improve training outcomes, prevent common troublesome issues in the field, increase accountability, and optimize organizational dynamics. Recommendations include planned, systematic, and documented observation of work performed, review of performance testing data, and developmental feedback meetings between the SCC and the supervisor. Some modification may be necessary for each sector of the field. However, the general themes may still be followed by supervisors.

Coaching the Power Clean: A Constraints-Led Approach

ABSTRACT Traditionally, strength and conditioning coaches have used explicit instructions when changing movement behavior. Recent work has questioned the efficacy of this approach. Whether explicit instruction is best for facilitating movement change is discussed along with an alternative approach. A brief review of traditional coaching methods is undertaken, highlighting differences between the traditional “coach-centered approach” and an “athlete-centered, constraints-led approach.” The constraints-led approach is applied to coaching the power clean. This provides an example of how strength and conditioning practitioners may approach the coaching of movement using methods that align with contemporary coaching as well as skill acquisition theory.

Legislators' Perceptions and Knowledge of the Athletic Training Profession: Specific Considerations for Secondary Schools.

Legislation has played a role in advancing the athletic training profession and improving the health and safety of student-athletes. However, few researchers have examined state legislators' perceptions and awareness of the skills and qualifications accompanying the athletic trainer (AT) role. To explore state legislators' perceptions of the athletic training profession and knowledge related to qualifications and responsibilities of ATs. Cross-sectional study. Web-based questionnaire. State legislators representing 34 states (N = 143; 67.13% male, 32.87% female). Their average age was 58.7 ± 11.7 years, and they had served 7.4 ± 6.9 years in their current role. A majority served as members of the state house or assembly (n = 98, 68.5%), and 31.5% served in the state senate. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Spearman ρ correlations assessed relationships between perceptions and knowledge of the profession. Stepwise regression analysis determined predictors of knowledge and perceived value of athletic training. Qualitative data were analyzed inductively. Approximately 69% of respondents considered an AT to be a trusted source of medical information, and 16% considered an AT as the most appropriate individual to provide medical care to an injured athlete on a daily basis. Thirty percent of state legislators selected AT employed at the school as a top sports safety measure. Three themes emerged from the inductive analysis: (1) recognition of the prevention domain, (2) misconception of ATs as personal trainers or strength and conditioning coaches, and (3) lack of knowledge regarding ATs' educational requirements. Legislators demonstrated limited knowledge of the AT profession. When legislator knowledge of AT qualifications and responsibilities was high, value of the AT profession also significantly improved. Future efforts should focus on enhancing legislators' knowledge to increase the value placed on the athletic training profession and improve health and safety for secondary school athletes.

Bilateral and unilateral load-velocity profiling in a machine-based, single-joint, lower body exercise.

BackgroundTo analyze the goodness of fit of the load-velocity relationship in a machine-based, single-joint exercise performed both in a bilateral and unilateral manner, as well as to study its accuracy to estimate one repetition maximum (1-RM).MethodsFifteen resistance trained males performed an incremental test in the bilateral and unilateral leg extension exercise up to the 1-RM in two separate occasions. Mean vertical velocity of the weight plates in the leg extension machine was measured for every repetition using a smartphone application (My Lift).ResultsLinear regression analyses showed a high goodness of fit (R2 > 0.93) and small standard errors of estimate (SEE < 5%1-RM) both in the bilateral and unilateral leg extension when individual load-velocity regressions for each participant were computed. Unilateral load-velocity relationships showed significant differences in the intercept of the regression line with the Y-axis and the velocity at each percentage of the 1-RM (Cohen’s d > 1.0, p< 0.05). Finally, non-significant differences were observed between actual and estimated 1-RM from the load-velocity relationships (r = 0.88.0–96, Cohen’s d < 0.2, p> 0.05).ConclusionsThis proof of concept highlights that computing load-velocity relationships in a machine-based, single-joint, angular exercise can be appropriately performed by measuring the mean vertical velocity of the weight plates. These results could help strength and conditioning researchers and coaches who wish to analyze load-velocity relationship in other common machine-based exercises.

Lower-Body Power Relationships to Linear Speed, Change-of-Direction Speed, and High-Intensity Running Performance in DI Collegiate Women's Basketball Players.

Basketball players need to sprint and change direction, and lower-body power (often measured by jump tests) should contribute. How different jumps relate to linear and change-of-direction (COD) speed, and high-intensity running has not been analyzed in Division I (DI) collegiate women’s basketballers. Twelve players completed the vertical jump (VJ), two-step approach jump (AppJ), and standing broad jump (SBJ). Average (AvgP) and peak power (PeakP), and PeakP: body mass (P:BM) were derived from VJ height; relative SBJ was derived from SBJ distance. Players also completed: 10 m and ¾ court sprints (linear speed), the pro-agility shuttle (COD speed), and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIRT1; high-intensity running). Pearson’s correlations (p < 0.05) calculated relationships between the jump and running tests. The AppJ correlated to the ¾ court sprint and pro-agility shuttle (r = -.663 to -.805). AvgP and PeakP correlated to the 10 m sprint, ¾ court sprint, and pro-agility shuttle (r = .589-.766). P:BM and relative SBJ correlated with all running tests (linear and COD speed r = -.620 to -.805; YYIRT1 r = .622.803). The AppJ stresses the stretch-shortening capacities of the legs, and this quality is important for faster linear and COD speed. AvgP and PeakP are influenced by body mass; while larger athletes produce greater power, they also may display slower 10 m sprint and pro-agility shuttle times, and lesser YYIRT1 performance. Strength coaches should ensure players can generate high relative power (i.e. P:BM, relative SBJ) for faster linear and COD speed, and high-intensity running.

The Effect of Preparatory Posture on Goalkeeper's Diving Save Performance in Football.

Identifying the optimal preparatory posture of football goalkeepers can be very relevant for improving goalkeepers' diving save performance, and coaching practices of technical and strength and conditioning coaches. This study aimed to analyse the effect of different starting stance widths and knee flexion angles on movement time, center of mass (CoM) trajectory and velocity in goalkeepers' diving saves. Ten elite goalkeepers performed dives from preferred (PT) and imposed postures, by altering knee angle (45, 75, and 90°) and stance width (50, 75, and 100% of leg length) independently, at the starting position. Repeated measures ANOVA showed a main effect of preparatory posture on dive time (p < 0.01). Pairwise comparisons showed that the fastest dive movement time was observed when goalkeepers started from a stance width of 75% (SW75). CoM traveled a larger distance between contralateral and ipsilateral peak ground reaction forces in SW75 than PT (p < 0.05). The goalkeepers were also more efficient in SW75, as a smaller countermovement and vertical velocity range were observed during high and low dives, respectively, from SW75 than PT (p < 0.05). Thus, diving from a position with wider stance width than the preferred one leads to shorter movement time, and a faster and more direct CoM trajectory toward the ball.

A qualitative investigation of coaches’ doping confrontation efficacy beliefs

ObjectivesTo investigate the nature of doping confrontation efficacy (DCE) beliefs – as well as their antecedents and outcomes – through a qualitative examination of Sullivan, Feltz, LaForge-MacKenzie, and Hwang’s (2015) DCE model with high-level technical and strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches from athletics and rugby union. DesignQualitative, descriptive. MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 coaches (nmale = 15, nfemale = 6; ntechnical = 11, nS&C = 10; nathletics = 5, nrugby = 13, nrugby & athletics = 3), working at a regional, national, or international level in athletics, rugby, or both sports. Study data were analyzed deductively using content analysis techniques. ResultsData analysis supported the relevance of all five dimensions of DCE (i.e., personal resources, initiation, legitimacy, intimacy, and expected outcomes) to coaching practice in athletics and rugby, identifying key potential antecedents (e.g., coach education) and outcomes (e.g., likelihood of confronting athletes on doping-related issues) of coach DCE beliefs relevant to one or more of the DCE sub-dimensions. Deficits in coaches’ anti-doping knowledge were also identified, supporting the need for improved anti-doping education for coaches. ConclusionBy conducting the first qualitative examination of DCE beliefs, we enriched understanding of the DCE model and identified a range of possible antecedents and outcomes of DCE beliefs in technical and S&C coaches. Based on the results of this study, recommendations are posed for revising and expanding the DCE model. Practical recommendations are also offered for coach education.

The effects of a 4-week mesocycle of barbell back squat or barbell hip thrust strength training upon isolated lumbar extension strength.

ObjectivesCommon exercises such as the barbell back squat (BBS) and barbell hip thrust (BHT) are perceived to provide a training stimulus to the lumbar extensors. However, to date there have been no empirical studies considering changes in lumbar extension strength as a result of BBS or BHT resistance training (RT) interventions.PurposeTo consider the effects of BBS and BHT RT programmes upon isolated lumbar extension (ILEX) strength.MethodsTrained male subjects (n = 14; 22.07 ± 0.62 years; 179.31 ± 6.96 cm; 79.77 ± 13.81 kg) were randomised in to either BBS (n = 7) or BHT (n = 7) groups and performed two training sessions per week during a 4-week mesocycle using 80% of their 1RM. All subjects were tested pre- and post-intervention for BBS and BHT 1RM as well as isometric ILEX strength.ResultsAnalyses revealed that both BBS and BHT groups significantly improved both their BBS and BHT 1RM, suggesting a degree of transferability. However, the BBS group improved their BBS 1RM to a greater degree than the BHT group (p = 0.050; ∼11.8 kg/10.2% vs. ∼8.6 kg/7.7%, respectively). And the BHT group improved their BHT 1RM to a greater degree than the BBS group (p = 0.034; ∼27.5 kg/24.8% vs. ∼20.3 kg/13.3%, respectively). Neither BBS nor BHT groups significantly improved their isometric ILEX strength.ConclusionsThe present study supports the concept of specificity, particularly in relation to the movement mechanics between trunk extension (including pelvic rotation) and ILEX. Our data suggest that strength coaches, personal trainers, and trainees can self-select multi-joint lower-body trunk extension exercises based on preference or variety. However, evidence suggests that neither the BBS nor BHT exercises can meaningfully increase ILEX strength. Since strengthening these muscles might enhance physical and sporting performance we encourage strength coaches and personal trainers to prescribe ILEX exercise.

Non-traumatic Fatalities in Football: Over-conditioning Kills

Objectives: Football is associated with the highest number of fatalities of any high school (HS) or college sport. In contrast to the annual number of traumatic fatalities in football, which has declined 4-fold since the 1960’s, the annual number of non-traumatic fatalities has stayed constant with current rates that are 2 to 3 times higher than traumatic fatalities. The purpose of this study was to describe the epidemiology and causes of non-traumatic fatalities in HS and college football players, to determine the effectiveness of the NCAA policies to reduce heat and sickle cell trait (SCT) fatalities, and to provide prevention strategies. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed non-traumatic football fatalities identified over a 20 year period from July 1998 through June 2018. Information was obtained from extensive internet searches, as well as depositions, investigative, autopsy, media, and freedom of information reports. Heat and SCT fatality rates were compared pre and post implementation of the NCAA football acclimatization model (2003) and SCT screening (2010) policies, respectively. Results: There were 187 (150 H.S., 37 college) non-traumatic fatalities (avg. 9/yr.). The most common causes of fatalities were cardiac (98, 52%), heat (44, 24%), SCT (23, 12%), and asthma (10, 5%). The majority of fatalities (127, 68%) occurred outside of the regular season months of September through December with the most common month for fatalities being August (61, 33%). Most (163, 87%) of the fatalities occurred during a practice or conditioning session (heat=100%, SCT=100%, asthma=90%, cardiac=77%). Hallmarks of exertion-related fatalities were: 1. conditioning sessions supervised by the football coach or strength and conditioning coach, 2. irrationally intense workouts and/or punishment drills, and 3. an inadequate medical response. The average annual rate of heat-related fatalities remained unchanged at the collegiate level pre (0.4) and post (0.4) implementation of the NCAA football acclimatization model in 2003. The average annual number of SCT deaths in collegiate football declined 58% (0.83 to 0.25) after the 2010 NCAA SCT screening policies were implemented. At the HS level, where there are no SCT guidelines, the number of SCT fatalities increased 400% (0.25/yr. to 1.0/yr.) since 2010. Conclusion: Most non-traumatic fatalities in HS and college football athletes do not occur while playing the game of football, but rather during conditioning sessions which are often associated with overexertion and/or punishment drills by coaches, especially strength and conditioning coaches. The football acclimatization model implemented by the NCAA in 2003 has failed at reducing exertional heat-related fatalities at the collegiate level. SCT screening policies adopted by the NCAA in 2010 have been effective at reducing fatalities in college athletes and similar guidelines should be mandated at the HS level. Conditioning related fatalities are preventable by establishing standards in workout design, holding coaches and strength and conditioning coaches accountable, ensuring compliance with current policies, and allowing athletic health care providers complete authority over medical decisions.

Test-Retest Reliability of a Commercial Linear Position Transducer (GymAware PowerTool) to Measure Velocity and Power in the Back Squat and Bench Press.

Orange, ST, Metcalfe, JW, Marshall, P, Vince, RV, Madden, LA, and Liefeith, A. Test-retest reliability of a commercial linear position transducer (GymAware PowerTool) to measure velocity and power in the back squat and bench press. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 728-737, 2020-This study examined the test-retest reliability of the GymAware PowerTool (GYM) to measure velocity and power in the free-weight back squat and bench press. Twenty-nine academy rugby league players (age: 17.6 ± 1.0 years; body mass: 87.3 ± 20.8 kg) completed 2 test-retest sessions for the back squat followed by 2 test-retest sessions for the bench press. GYM measured mean velocity (MV), peak velocity (PV), mean power (MP), and peak power at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 90% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). GYM showed good reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] and standard error of measurement percentage, respectively) for the measurement of MV at loads of 40 (0.77, 3.9%), 60 (0.83, 4.8%), 80 (0.83, 5.8%), and 90% (0.79, 7.9%) of 1RM in the back squat. In the bench press, good reliability was evident for PV at 40 (0.82, 3.9%), 60 (0.81, 5.1%), and 80% (0.77, 8.4%) of 1RM, and for MV at 80 (0.78, 7.9%) and 90% (0.87, 9.9%) of 1RM. The measurement of MP showed good to excellent levels of reliability across all relative loads (ICC ≥0.75). In conclusion, GYM provides practitioners with reliable kinematic information in the back squat and bench press, at least with loads of 40-90% of 1RM. This suggests that strength and conditioning coaches can use the velocity data to regulate training load according to daily readiness and target specific components of the force-velocity curve. However, caution should be taken when measuring movement velocity at loads <40% of 1RM.

Perceptions of coach doping confrontation efficacy and athlete susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping.

We tested a conceptually grounded model linking athlete perceptions of strength and conditioning and technical coach doping confrontation efficacy (DCE) with athletes' doping self-regulatory efficacy (SRE), doping moral disengagement (MD), and susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping. Cross-sectional, correlational. Participants were high-level athletes (nmale =532; nfemale =290) recruited in Australia (n=261), the UK (n=300), and the USA (n=261). All participants completed questionnaires assessing the variables alongside a variant of the randomized response technique to estimate the prevalence of doping. The estimated prevalence of intentional doping in the sample was 13.9%. Structural equation modeling established: (a) perceptions of technical and strength and conditioning coaches' DCE positively predicted doping SRE; (b) doping SRE negatively predicted doping MD; (c) doping MD positively predicted susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping; and (d) the predictive effects of coach perceptions on susceptibility to doping were mediated by doping SRE and doping MD. Multisample analyses demonstrated these predictive effects were invariant between males and females and across the three countries represented. The findings show the conceptually grounded model to offer extended understanding of how multiple individuals within the athlete support personnel network may influence athlete doping.

Historical and Social Considerations of Strength Training for Female Athletes

ABSTRACT Female athletes may be hesitant to fully engage in the weight room. Common concerns include violating social norms through their muscularity, or a lack of competence in strength training. These concerns are rooted in historical efforts to constrain the intensity of female competition and traditional societal assumptions about the attributes of femininity. This work seeks to help strength coaches understand the historical and social background of female concerns about strength training and provides a psychological framework that may be useful in helping female athletes overcome their trepidation about the weight room.

Importance of Physical Qualities for Speed and Change of Direction Ability in Elite Female Soccer Players.

Emmonds, S, Nicholson, G, Beggs, C, Jones, B, and Bissas, A. Importance of physical qualities for speed and change of direction ability in elite female soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 33(6): 1670-1678, 2019-The purpose of this study was to determine the importance of physical qualities for speed and change of direction (CoD) ability in female soccer players. Data were collected on 10 female soccer players who were part of a professional English Women's Super League team. Player assessments included anthropometric (stature and body mass), body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), speed (10-m and 20-m sprints), CoD ability (505 agility), aerobic (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test), lower-body strength (bilateral knee extensions), and power (countermovement jump [CMJ], squat jump [SJ], 30-cm drop jump [DJ]) measures. The relationships between the variables were evaluated using eigenvector analysis and Pearson correlation analysis. Multiple linear regression revealed that the performance variables (10 and 20 m speed, mean 505, and CoD deficit mean) can be predicted with almost 100% accuracy (i.e., adjusted R > 0.999) using various combinations of the predictor variables (DJ height, CMJ height, SJ height, and lean body mass). An increase of 1 SD in DJ height was associated with reductions of -5.636 and -9.082 SD in 10-m and 20-m sprint times. One SD increase in CMJ also results in a reduction of -3.317 and -0.922 SD, respectively, in mean 505 and CoD deficit mean values. This study provides comparative data for professional English female soccer players that can be used by strength and conditioning coaches when monitoring player development and assessing the effectiveness of training programs. Findings highlight the importance of developing reactive strength to improve speed and CoD ability in female soccer players.