Gender Equality Strategy Research Articles

Constituting gender and gender equality through policy

PurposeIn Sweden, gender mainstreaming policies have a long political history. As part of the national gender equality strategy of the Swedish forest industry, the ten largest forestry companies committed themselves to gender mainstream their policies. Limiting the impact of policies and the agency of change, the purpose of this paper is to focus on the varied and conflicting meanings and constitution of the concepts, the problem and, in extent, the organisational realities of gender mainstreaming.Design/methodology/approachIn both, implementation and practice, gender mainstreaming posse challenges on various levels and by analysing these documents as practical texts from the WPR-approach. This paper explores constructions of gender and gender equality and their implications on the practice and the political of gender mainstreaming in a male-dominated primary industry.FindingsThe results show that the organisations themselves were not constituted as the subject of the policy but instead some of the individuals (women). The subject position of women represented in company policy was one of lacking skills and competences and in the need of help. Not only men and the masculine norms but organisational processes and structures were also generally invisible in the material. Power and conflict were mainly absent from the understanding of gender equality. Instead, consenting ideas of gender equality were the focus. Such conceptualisations of gender equality are beneficial for all risk concealing power structures and thereby limit the political space for change.Originality/valueBy highlighting the scale of policy and the significance of organisational contexts, the results indicate how gender and gender equality are constitutive through the governing technologies of neoliberal and market-oriented ideologies in policy – emphasising the further limiting of space for structural change and politicalization within the male-dominated organisations of Swedish forest industry.

Gender Inequity in African University Engineering Programs

African women are grossly underrepresented in undergraduate engineering programs across universities in Africa. This paper reviews policies that some African universities have adopted to address the problem and suggests strategies for greater gender equality.

Gender Inequity in African University Engineering Programs

African women are grossly underrepresented in undergraduate engineering programs across universities in Africa. This paper reviews policies that some African universities have adopted to address the problem and suggests strategies for greater gender equality.

RELAÇÕES DE GÊNERO E CONHECIMENTO EM PSICOLOGIA: CONTRIBUIÇÕES DA TEORIA CRÍTICA

Este trabalho apresenta algumas discussões recentes levantadas pela teoria crítica feminista, que contribuem para problematizar a objetividade científica da psicologia. Denuncia-se, primeiramente, falsa neutralidade de gênero que, embutida na ideia de um ser humano genérico, conduz a uma necessária revisão de conceitos supostamente universais. Um desses conceitos é aquele de justiça, que permeia estudos sobre moral em psicologia do desenvolvimento. Ao mesmo tempo, discute-se a predominância de determinado gênero nas universidades, instituindo e legitimando experiências específicas no processo de construção de conhecimentos na área. Exploram-se artigos de autoras feministas identificadas com o campo teórico-crítico, com foco na questão da identidade, bem como nas implicações políticas das concepções de linguagem envolvidas em suas posições. Por fim, dialogando-se com autores da primeira geração da escola de Frankfurt, propõe-se a consideração da dialética entre conceito e experiência para a construção de novos saberes e estratégias visando à igualdade de gênero. Espera-se mostrar que a crítica feminista atingiu pilares importantes da psicologia, que, como ciência, não pode permanecer inerte frente aos desafios que lhe vêm sendo colocados. Os diversos campos da psicologia precisam se mobilizar na construção de estratégias emancipatórias, capazes de assegurar a própria validade dos conhecimentos produzidos pela área.

Gender equality: Perspectives of rural women entrepreneurship in Vojvodina

The aim of this paper is to analyze the situation of women in rural areas of the Republic of Serbia and Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. Surveys and studies by various authors and donors were carried out on several occasions from 2007 to 2013 and, unfortunately, gave basically the same results: the status of women in rural areas of Serbia is in very poor condition. Farms are mostly located on the territory of Vojvodina, so the emphasis is placed on women in these areas. The position of women in society is the same as the position of women in the countryside. Women who become entrepreneurs are rare. This partly depends on the level of education and on the possession of fonds for the realization of entrepreneurial ideas. Women living in rural areas lack awareness and the will to start an independent business. Although Serbia has signed various international conventions that commit to gender equality strategies adopted on the level of Serbia and Vojvodina, there has been insufficient implementation of these strategies in practice. This certainly affects the reluctance of women to engage in entrepreneurial attempt, and the number of women entrepreneurs is decreasing. To improve this situation it is necessary to resort to various forms of education for women, depending on preferences, age, level of education etc. Methods used in this research are characteristic of social science: desk research, analysis of the surveys that were previously done on a representative sample of entrepreneurs and managers, historical and comparative analysis and qualitative research.

Anatomy of women’s participation in small professional unions

This article brings the neglected topic of small professional unions into the women and unions literature. In addition to an overview of women’s representation and gender equality strategies in small professional UK unions, it offers a contextually grounded analysis of barriers and enablers of women’s participation in Napo – the union representing professional workers in the probation service. The article identifies several enablers: healthy levels of women’s representation over a long period of time; presence and longevity of gender equality strategies; a strong occupational identity; occupational values that complement those of unionism. However, a highly pressured work environment and hostile industrial relations climate create lived insecurities, work–life imbalance and time poverty, which have constrained women professionals’ union participation.

Gender equalities work in health organisations in England

Purpose– An increasing number of countries have introduced duties for public-sector organisations who, in addition to addressing discrimination, are now also required to promote equality of opportunity between different groups. The purpose of this paper is to explore the limited progress of gender equality policies, through a study of the local implementation of equalities policies. The authors highlight the role of equalities leads in the public sector as local “agents of change”, and explore explanations of the implementation gap between policy and practice.Design/methodology/approach– The paper reports on a small-scale qualitative study with equalities leads in the health sector in England. The study comprised semi-structured interviews with equalities leads from nine health organisations which were purposively selected to include a mix of areas and populations. The interviews focused on the leads’ backgrounds and their perceptions of barriers to their work.Findings– The equalities leads had a range of experience prior to their current post, though most had little formal subject-specific training. They highlighted a number of barriers to effective implementation of gender equality strategies, including resource issues, the impact of organisational change, the increased the number of equalities they were expected to address, organisational perceptions that gender was no longer a priority and resistance to what are seen as “tick box” exercises.Originality/value– The value of this paper is that it adds to the understanding of the challenges facing the implementation of gender equalities policies in the health sector, the reasons for these and the role of local policy implementers in the effectiveness of national equalities policies.

Thirty Years of Gender Quotas in Germany: Policy Adoption between Mainstreaming and Minimal Compliance

This paper reviews three decades of gender quota policies in Germany and assesses policy adoption in parties, public administration, as well as on corporate and public boards. Germany was an early adopter of quotas for women in political parties and in public administration. Even though both measures were controversial when first enacted in the 1980s and early 1990s, they have since become rather low-profile gender equality strategies. A recent initiative to adopt quotas for women on corporate and public boards, by contrast, produced substantial public discussion. The mainstreaming of positive action plans in public institutions that include decision quotas, fixed quotas and goal quotas has given gender advocates formally strong leverage to advance a gender equality agenda. At the same time, a culture of minimalist compliance has pervaded the public sector and parties. Male institutions and organizations tend to exhibit more passive resistance than vocal opposition, thus making it difficult for feminists to engage effectively with non-compliance. A lack of sanctions as well as intricate strategies to circumvent quota decisions add to a sense among German feminist activists that quotas are one, but by no means the only strategy for gender equality in public life.

Women entrepreneurship – a shortcut to a more competitive and equal forestry sector?

This article discusses the potential for soft-governance instruments and processes such as the National Gender Equality Strategy to implement a strategy aiming at improved competiveness through gender equality. A central question addressed is how to create a women entrepreneurial identity within the framework of the dominant gender order in the forest sector? The literature review and policy analysis upon which this article is based shows that both structural and individual factors in combination are important for women to be motivated to develop a business in the green sectors. While fully agree with the above, this article takes the discussion one step further by pointing out how policy programs designed to support rural business often have been carried out in a top-down fashion without sufficient knowledge about specific target groups, and have primarily focused on men’s businesses within the primary business areas. In order not to be “genderblind,” specific support built from the grassroots level with sufficient knowledge about the target group, i.e. women forest owners, is crucial. Several studies also show that in order for programs or strategies with vague effect goals to work, they have to be legitimate and accepted by the stakeholders, which has shown to be one of the most fundamental weaknesses of this type of soft-governance approach. The essential factor is not the goal itself, but rather which tools are available for implementation. Otherwise, this type of soft policy instruments will only work on those who already believe – that is to say, it is seducing the already seduced.

Management control for gender mainstreaming – a quest of transformative norm breaking

Purpose– This paper aims to discuss the gendered dimensions of management control. Gender mainstreaming is a worldwide strategy for gender equality. The question raised in this paper is how a management control system functions under the pressure of mainstreaming gender into a core business.Design/methodology/approach– The evidence stems from a case study at two Swedish Governmental public transport administrations. Interviews, observations of meetings and close reading of documents furnish this paper with data over a five-year period regarding the management control of the policy goal of a gender-equal transport system. The practice of management control for gender mainstreaming is studied by adopting sociological institutional theory and a gender perspective.Findings– The management control system proves to hamper gender equality. In a technocratic core business, the control system fails to support gender mainstreaming. In this paper, the control of a gender-equal transport system results in a quantitative perspective on women and men instead of a qualitative gender perspective on the transport system.Practical implications– This paper has practical implications both for accountants being involved in management control for gender mainstreaming and for all persons involved in promoting gender mainstreaming.Originality/value– The paper contributes to the scarce literature from research with a gender perspective on management control systems. Being exposed to gender mainstreaming, the gender perspective discloses dysfunctional dimensions within the management control system.

The paradoxes of gender mainstreaming in developing countries: The case of health care in Papua New Guinea

Gender mainstreaming developed as the global strategy for gender equality nearly two decades ago. Since then it has faced criticism for its technocratic application, and its role in the de-politicisation and neutralisation of the women's movement in gender policy-making. In the health sector, this incongruity is exacerbated by a traditional bio-medical approach to women's issues. In this paper, we ask whether gender mainstreaming can be made to work in the health sectors of developing countries where these challenges, as well as women's poor health status, are further complicated by a raft of local traditional, cultural, political and socioeconomic barriers. To answer these questions, we present a case study of Papua New Guinea (PNG), one of the world's most disadvantaged and politically challenging countries. We review data on women's health in PNG and analyse PNG's aspirational and actual performance on gender mainstreaming, looking at: international commitments; political will and capacity; national policies and programmes; and the women's movement along with civil society's participation. We find numerous paradoxes between the aims of gender mainstreaming and the necessary conditions for its success.

Psychometric evaluation of the “Men's Polarized Gender Thinking Questionnaire (MPGQ)”

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to develop and validate a new measure of gender equality at male-dominated workplaces, allowing quantitative analyses of men's beliefs about gender-based inequality at work.Design/methodology/approach– The present paper examines a questionnaire developed from qualitative interviews based on grounded theory methodology and designed to assess men's beliefs about gender inequality. A 23-item version of the Men's Polarized Gender Thinking Questionnaire (MPGQ) was completed by a sample of 220 men from three different male-dominated organizations in Sweden. Recommended psychometric testing procedures were conducted.Findings– Confirmatory factor analysis supported a six-factor model of male attitudes to gender-based inequality: different views on success, stereotypical gender roles – different jargons, benevolent sexism, conscious of gender order, conscious of the male norm system and strategies for gender equality at work. The final model showed acceptable fit to data. All six factors were positively intercorrelated.Practical implications– It was concluded that the MPGQ provides a useful tool for further studies of men's sometimes polarized views of gender equality in male-dominated workplaces. Hence, MPGQ may allow researchers and practitioners to go deeper in their understanding of persistent and often hidden gender-based inequality at work.Originality/value– Equality plans are difficult to fulfill if people do not know on which subtle mechanisms the concept gender-based inequality is founded. The MPGQ illustrates how they are manifested at a specific workplace. Because of the scarcity of this type of workplace measures, this study may make a contribution of concern to the literature. By measuring these sometimes polarized beliefs, management strategies aiming at decreasing barriers to gender equality at work could become more accurate and efficient.

Framing the involvement of men in gender equality in Europe: Between institutionalised and non-institutionalised politics

In order to reach the main goal of the paper, the identification of the impact and effectiveness of strategies and measures which promote gender equality not only in connection to women but also men, an overview of institutionalised practices, men’s involvement in gender equality strategies like gender mainstreaming, as well as men’s participation in international and national networks, organisations and groups are presented. The identification of specific forms of institutionalised and non-institutionalised practices and politics is based on the theoretical model proposed by Michael Messner (2000) and concerns the situation in the European Union.

Progress Towards Gender Democracy in UK Unions 1987–2012

AbstractThis article provides a detailed chronological account of the extent of overall change in women's representation in UK unions' structures of democracy and in unions' adoption of gender equality (GE) strategies over a 25‐year period (1987–2012). The findings reveal huge progress towards gender proportionality and towards getting women's concerns on the union agenda. The evidence strongly suggests that at least in part this progress can be attributed to the wide range of GE strategies increasingly adopted over the period. However, the article exposes persistent gaps and warns against regarding the union gender democracy project as finished business.

Strengthening women’s security in crisis? The virtual implementation of strategies and guidelines

Humanitarian agencies consist of several organizational levels, of which some find themselves far from each other in terms of culture and context. In their efforts to ensure a common direction in activities, humanitarian managers therefore rely on an array of guiding documents such as strategies, policies, and guidelines. Such guiding documents, however, are reported to have a marginal effect on humanitarian practice at field level. In this article, the authors take a closer look at the interlevel dynamics of humanitarian agencies and ask why their guiding documents are prone to flawed implementation. This study is centered on the United Nations Development Programme’s Gender Equality Strategy 2008-2011, and in particular its Eight Point Agenda for women’s empowerment and gender equality in crisis prevention and recovery. Theories concerning safety management and organizational accidents in commercial companies are used to analyze the implementation process. The findings revealed job perception gaps and diverging “realities” between the different organizational levels, combined with implementation indicators that are perceived as “irrelevant” at the country office and field office levels. Indicators tend to measure the output of administrative efforts within the organization rather than the outcome for the crisis-affected communities the guiding document was intended to protect. This phenomenon can be described as virtual implementation, as managers at the headquarters level are left with a mistaken belief that their guiding documents have made a humanitarian impact. As a consequence, virtual implementation can exacerbate the job perception gaps within the organization and develop latent conditions for future failures.

Assessing Advocacy: European Transnational Women's Networks and Gender Mainstreaming

This study investigates how European women's transnational advocacy networks (TANs) practice advocacy in regard to the gender mainstreaming strategy. Women's TANs face gender mainstreaming in several ways: They are considered to be hubs for organizing public dialogue on gender equality strategies in Europe. Moreover, employing mainstreaming tools has become a requirement for acquiring project funds from the European Union. Many TANs and their member groups thus work with mainstreaming. Finally, women's TANs are well positioned to observe and compare the implementation of mainstreaming through interaction with their national and regional members. The article builds on a series of interviews as well as on web-based data analysis to assess positions and advocacy of five European women's TANs in regard to gender mainstreaming. The findings suggest limited trust in and commitment to the strategy, but also limited advocacy. Women's TANs have developed a strategically distant position regarding gender mainstreaming. Lack of internal capacity, overall resource poverty, as well as prioritizing institutional advocacy, this study suggests, might contribute to weak politicization in regard to the gender mainstreaming strategy.

Mainstreaming – et paradoksalt ligestillingsværktøj

The gender mainstreaming strategy was formulated in general terms, thus creating an ‘empty’, yet broadly applicable and acceptable strategy for eliminating multiple kinds of gender gaps. This article constructs a definition of the concept of mainstreaming, and estimates the positive and negative properties of the strategy, concluding that the mainstreaming strategy continually generates a paradox. The paradox of mainstreaming is that the strategy will relinquish gender equality as an end in itself as it enters into the mainstream of any organisation that works with different primary goals. Thus in mainstreaming it is the abandonment of equality as the main objective that creates a unique opportunity for introducing equality strategies into organisations that would not take in a ‘traditional’ gender equality strategy.

GENDER EQUALITY POLICY OR GENDER MAINSTREAMING?

The aim of this article is to analyse some of the core conceptual and implementation issues underpinning the process of introducing gender mainstreaming strategy in Hungary. It examines the approach of Hungarian policy makers to gender mainstreaming and evaluates the political framing of some crucial aspects of gender equality. Our argument in this article is twofold. First, we observe that the concept of gender mainstreaming as a cross-sectoral and comprehensive policy tool for achieving gender equality has only been sporadically present and this has mostly been located at the rhetorical level. Hungary has no comprehensive gender equality strategy and no distinctive gender equality policy instruments currently in place. Rather, the promotion of equal opportunity on all grounds has become a powerful policy approach in the last two to three years, often neglecting the specific requirements of gender equality. Secondly, we argue that the influence of the European Union (EU) accession process has had two stages, as far as gender equality policy is concerned in Hungary. The first stage, has referred primarily to the de jure harmonization of Hungarian legislation with relevant EU directives, but has brought very little harmonization at the policy level, and brought limited de facto realization of the rights imposed by the directives. The second stage, identified from mid-2003, is coterminous with Hungary joining the different EU level policy processes. This second stage signaled a shift from legislative harmonization to a more focused policy approach. This stage may be characterized as a direct process of EU-isation on Hungarian policy concepts and tools, such as gender mainstreaming. However, it is too early to judge the practical implications of this development.

Sisyphus' Sisters: Can Gender Mainstreaming Escape the Genderedness of Organizations?

Currently, gender mainstreaming is presented as bringing new élan to gender equality policies. Gender mainstreaming is a gender equality strategy that aims to transform organizational processes and practices by eliminating gender biases in existing routines, involving the regular actors in this transformation process. In this article, we question the aspirations of gender mainstreaming. Can gender mainstreaming escape the genderedness of organizations; can it genuinely effect change, or does it inevitably become compromised? Our analysis of a case project within Human Resource Management in the Ministry of the Flemish Community in Belgium shows that gender mainstreaming does indeed bring about changes, but that it does not break down the genderedness of organizations substantially. While gender mainstreaming invokes an image of cooperation between equal parties that pursue a dual agenda of business needs and feminist goals, our analysis shows that crucial power differences between those parties determine the outcome. The complex social dynamics of gender mainstreaming entail compromises in the context of these power differences, which seriously hinder the transformative and innovative potential of gender mainstreaming.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN EL HATILLO, NICARAGUA: GENDER, NEOLIBERALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK

ABSTRACTEl Hatillo is a rural community in the Sébaco valley in Nicaragua, which suffers from an eroding resource base, high levels of poverty and malnutrition, and a high susceptibility to hazards. Structural adjustment policies have been devastating for small and subsistence farmers and have increased the level of economic, social and environmental marginalisation in rural Nicaragua. This paper explores initiatives to promote sustainable development in Nicaragua in the context of structural adjustment and environmental degradation. Drawing on qualitative research conducted in El Hatillo, it outlines the ways in which women in this community are attempting to address the multiple challenges of rural poverty and environmental risk and considers the potential of these strategies for gender equality.