Strategic Culture Research Articles

The Paradox of Indonesia Cyberspace Policy and Cooperation: Neoclassical Realism Perspective

Cyberspace is a new threat to state security, especially in Indonesia. The increase of internet users in Indonesia is followed by several policies Jakarta takes to adapt to the fast pace of cyberspace challenges. To manage cyberspace in Indonesia, the government has developed ITE Law to regulate Indonesia’s cyberspace and prevent threats coming from within. Moreover, realizing cyberspace offers many opportunities. The government also cooperates with other actors like ASEAN to formulate ASEAN Digital Masterplan to enhance cyberspace contribution toward economic recovery after the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there is a contradiction between ITE Law, especially the Regulation of the Minister of Communication and Informatics No. 5 of 2020, and the cyberspace cooperation that the government tries to impose. These phenomena raise the question of why the Indonesian government takes contradiction policy on cyberspace between domestic and international levels. This research examined the reason behind the paradoxical policy of the Indonesian government’s ITE Law and the ASEAN Digital Masterplan regarding cyberspace policy, especially from 2016 to 2021. A qualitative method was employed to achieve the objective, with disciplined configurative reports and government documents regarding its cyber policy as the data. The data were analyzed using the theory of neoclassical realism to identify the Indonesian government’s cyberspace policy behavior on domestic and international levels. This paradoxical situation between the domestic and international levels of the Indonesian government’s cyberspace policy was created by how the Indonesian government identified threats. The Indonesian government still faced instability at the domestic level to identify the category of threats toward the regime due to the inheritance of the authoritarian regime government model it experienced before. The opposite response at the international level occurred because the socialization and institutionalization in the region have created strategic culture. Accordingly, the strategic culture of cyberspace has restricted the Indonesian government from applying the same idea at the domestic level. The Indonesian government should adapt the popular strategic culture at the international level to ensure prestige.

Tracing strategic preferences in cyberspace: The role of regional and domestic strategic culture

ABSTRACT Our understanding of strategic preferences in cyberspace rests on the material and strategic factors that shape state behavior. This, however, is derived from the actions of established cyber powers. Given the material resources required to effectively operate in this environment and repeated interactions that form the boundaries of accepted behavior, the literature does not adequately explain the emergence of strategic preferences among novice actors. The article posits that these are not exclusively the function of either the material or strategic factors. Instead, strategic culture features prominently in the selection of strategic preferences that shape state behavior in cyberspace.

The Discourse of Humanity in COVID-19 Pandemic

Indonesia is one of the countries that are willing to accept the arrival of refugees to its territory. Although it has not yet ratified the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Indonesia has issued Peraturan Presiden Nomor 125/2016 on international refugees. In addition, the Indonesian government, especially President Joko Widodo, issued various statements which mostly emphasized fulfilling rights and upholding humanity for refugees demonstrating Indonesia's commitment to carrying out the human values contained in the Preamble of Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 and Pancasila as a dominant discourse of Indonesia's strategic culture. However, the discourse seems to have shifted in the era after the COVID-19 pandemic which has also potentially changed the Indonesian government's treatment of refugees. The negative impacts in various sectors made Indonesia have to prioritize the safety of its citizens and potentially neglect the fulfillment of the rights of refugees. Indonesia's burden in handling refugees during the pandemic is exacerbated by the unresponsiveness of UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) which should be responsible for handling refugees. This leaves groups of refugees in a vulnerable condition because they are neglected by the Indonesian government both at the central and regional levels. Therefore, this paper tries to analyze aspects behind the shift in the Indonesian government's policy regarding foreign refugees using strategic cultural discourse and provide advice to the Indonesian government for handling refugees in pandemic and/or after pandemic situations without forgetting the humanitarian aspect of refugees.Keywords: Humanity, Strategic Culture, COVID-19, Refugees, Indonesian Government.
 Keywords: Humanity, Strategic Culture, COVID-19, Refugees, Indonesian Government

Understanding Russian Strategic Behavior: Imperial Strategic Culture and Putin’s Operational Code, written by Graeme P. Herd

Understanding Russian Strategic Behavior: Imperial Strategic Culture and Putin’s Operational Code, written by Graeme P. Herd

Cybersecurity in the V4 Policy in 2011–2022

The Visegrad Group (V4) is one of the most intriguing examples of cooperation among countries in Central Europe. It unites the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. Together, these countries form a useful framework which facilitates policy coordination at the regional level. They also implement EU agendas by creating networks of cooperation with neighbouring countries. These networks are based on the countries’ mutual security geography and a common strategic culture. When, in 2014, the most important political goals were achieved, there emerged a need to set a new direction for cooperation. It turned out that many issues in the field of public policy, such as transport infrastructure, natural environment, tourism, migration, culture or education, can be effectively implemented at the V4 level. Moreover, cooperation in a common cybersecurity policy is now a chance for deeper cooperation between the four countries. However, changes in the use and dissemination of cybertechnology in the public space began to gather momentum only in the first decade of the 21st century. Thus, the process of cyberrevolution was a harbinger of changes in state management. This study analyses the cybersecurity policy of the Visegrad Group countries from 2011–2022 from both military and non-military aspects.

Singapore’s relations with the Gulf: from defensive to positive engagement

ABSTRACT In the early 2000s, the Middle East was not high on the list of Singapore’s priorities. Of late, however, a more purposeful engagement with the Gulf is evident. This paper adopts an approach grounded in foreign policy analysis to analyze the extent to which Singapore’s engagement with the Gulf is shaped by security-related developments in the latter. It draws largely upon qualitative analysis, interviews, and quantitative data from sources in Singapore. Section one provides the relevant theoretical overview according to which domestic sources, in this case Singapore’s strategic culture of “vulnerability,” frames the conduct of foreign policy. Section two examines Singapore-Gulf relations along three security-related pathways – public order, economic prosperity, and domestic energy mix – and the extent to which they are filtered by the city-state’s “vulnerability.” Section three concludes with some thoughts about the outlook for maintaining the momentum in relations between interlocutors on the fringes of Asia.

Tailored engagement: Assessing Japan’s strategic culture and its impact on U.S. – China competition

The concept of “Strategic Culture” has enjoyed a resurgence in the last two decades as a method for understanding the behavior and decision making of potential adversaries. Strategic culture assessment methodologies offer a way to examine the policy choices of states, while accounting for ethnocentric biases. While these assessments have been used widely for analyzing adversaries, they are underutilized in assessing allies. The emergence of great power competition between the U.S. and China will increase pressure on the U.S.-Japan alliance. Increasing the understanding of Japan’s strategic culture will provide the United States insight into ways to engage with Japan to make strategies to compete with China more effective.

STRATEGIC CULTURE AND INTER-STATE RELATIONS: A CASE OF PAKISTAN AND INDIA

Geography, culture and history play a central role in shaping a nation's perceptions, biases and images of adversaries. The combination of these factors constitutes strategic culture. Strategic communities tend to adopt diverse approaches to interpreting, analysing and reacting to a given situation. They may incline to pick peculiar strategic choices, such as using force or relying on external alliances, while not opting for a range of others. Decisions and choices are affected by patterns of thinking that evolved over the years. Strategic culture has evolved and generated significant discussion on theoretical frameworks and potential applications in a regional and international security context. Pakistan-India strategic equation is a complex phenomenon, fraught with hostility and mistrust, impregnated with conventional and non-conventional hazards. India views Pakistan as a stumbling block in realising her power ambition, while Pakistan considers India an existential threat. The article analyses the effect of strategic culture on inter-state relations with emphasis on Pakistan-India relations. Unique historical events, geography, the influence of dominant strategic strata and perception biases shape respective strategic cultures. It further analyses strategic culture based on Hofstede's Model, besides pondering upon symbols and philosophical influences. Bibliography Entry Ali, Shehzad. 2022. "Strategic Culture and Inter-State Relations: A Case of Pakistan and India." Margalla Papers 26 (1): 121-131.

INDIAN POLITICAL DOCTRINES: UNDERSTANDING INTERNAL SECURITY DYNAMICS OF INDIA IMPACTING PAKISTAN

Strategic culture involves diplomatic ties, geopolitical orientation and political ideology involving the military. India’s strategic culture orientates pro-nationalist policies, emphasizing the business progression of a specific class, discriminating in exercising minority rights, and imbalancing diplomatic ties with neighbouring states for regional hegemony. Indian leadership, from Jawaharlal Nehru to Narendra Modi, has kept regional dominance as a primary Indian strategic objective. More importantly, the Indian strategic community has carefully maintained narrative linking insurgencies with its neighbours, especially Pakistan. A cross-sectional analysis of Indian political doctrines explains how internal security challenges of India are shaping its strategic culture and stance towards Pakistan. It includes contextualizing the concept of strategic culture and modelling Indian strategic culture to the scope of research. The impact of Indian strategic culture on Pakistan is multi-dimensional, ranging from combat capabilities to international presence at international forums like the UN and FATF. The research proposes policy options and action points for Pakistan. The paper establishes three fundamental aspects. First, the Indian strategic thoughts are rooted in Kautilyian discourse. Second, linking Pakistan with insurgencies in India. Third, with the rise of Hindutva through the BJP with a conducive geostrategic environment, India has resorted to an offensive-defensive strategy towards Pakistan. With these interpretations, the research paves the way for identifying policy options for Pakistan while considering Pakistan’s national interests. Bibliography Entry Malik, Tassawar Aziz, and Sehrish Qayyum. 2022. "Indian Political Doctrines: Understanding Internal Security Dynamics of India Impacting Pakistan." Margalla Papers 26 (1): 18-33.

Research on Korean Foreign Policy since Park Geun-hye Administration from the Perspective of Neoclassical Realism

The pervasiveness of Sino-US relations is profoundly reflected in many regions all over the world. As a wrestling field for various forces, Korean Peninsula has a self-evident strategic value to China and the United States, especially in the terms of military security and geostrategy. Due to the sophisticated environment in Northeast Asia, it is necessary to make an in-depth analysis of South Korea's diplomatic decision-making mechanism based on studying the Sino-US competition system. With the help of neoclassical realism theory, we can pay more attention to the role of domestic factors in state actors. The different attitudes and decisions of Park Geun-hye administration and Moon Jae-in administration towards the THAAD system are inseparable from leaders' intentions, strategic culture, state-society relations, domestic system, and other factors. Their joint efforts under the unique political system restrict and affect the decision-making process and results of Korean diplomacy. Therefore, how these domestic factors show a combined impact on the Korean diplomatic decision-making is the key to the study.

AUKUS and Australia’s Nuclear-Powered Submarine: A Reinforced Strategic Culture

Australia’s decision to enter the AUKUS has caused some controversies among regional powers, especially noting the heightened Indo-Pacific discourse lately. But AUKUS isn’t a mere alliance against revisionist power, it has much deeper dan greater significance on Australia’s defence policies. This paper argues that AUKUS reflect the dilemmatic sub-strategic cultures within Australia’s defence policy considerations against the changing strategic environment in Indo-Pacific, the self-reliance and strategic dependence. Strategically, AUKUS presented Australia the opportunity to participate and shaping the Indo-Pacific under US-led initiative and act as technology catalysator on defence sector. Operationally, the nuclear-powered procurement under AUKUS will significantly boost Australia’s submarine fleet capability in sea denial and sea control mission as a part of larger coalition. Using strategic culture lens and studying primary and secondary documents in a qualitative work, the analysis of this paper concludes that AUKUS reflected the return and reinforced pattern of strategic dependence within Australia’s defence policy in the age of Indo-Pacific.

Strategic culture and competing visions for the EU’s Russia strategy: flexible accommodation, cooperative deterrence, and calibrated confrontation

This article analyzes the national security strategies of EU member states in the 2009–2018 period, and conceptualizes three security strategies EU member states have adopted toward Russia – flexible accommodation, cooperative deterrence, and calibrated confrontation. It tests strategic culture hypotheses against those of realism and commercial liberalism to explain the variation of EU member states’ security strategies toward Russia. While a realist explanation would predict EU member states geographically proximate to Russia would possess more confrontational security strategies, geographic proximity and confrontational security strategies toward Russia are not positively correlated. Bilateral economic interdependence with Russia, the presence of populist parties in EU member states governing coalitions, and EU member states’ alignment or status as an occupied state during the Cold War also do not explain EU member states’ security strategies toward Russia. A more consistent explanation of the variance in EU member states’ policy on Russia revolves around the strategic culture of the state in question. States with a more Atlanticist perspective tend to be more confrontation with Russia than their more Europeanist counterparts, regardless of geographic proximity or economic interdependence with Russia.

Unit’s Heterogeneity and System Differentiation: The Logic of U.S.-China Relations' Transition

In this paper, Unit Heterogeneity and the Degree of system differentiation are considered as the independent variables to explain the differential characteristics of the international structure, which lead to a differentiated interaction mode between hegemon and other rising powers. Then the paper further argues that globalization and nuclear deterrence lead to dynamic changes in system differentiation, and the heterogeneity between rising power and hegemonic power in geographical objectives, strategic culture, ideology, and polity are the conditions that hegemon must refer to when positioning the nature of rising power and interacting with rising power. However, the logic of power distribution is implied in the degree of system differentiation, and the author finds that in the process of globalization promoted by the hegemon if the relative power of rising powers becomes unconstrained, the hegemon will slow down globalization and suppress rising powers instead. The degree of urgency relates not only to power distribution but also to unit heterogeneity. Therefore, the paper distinguished four patterns in terms of great powers’ competition: duopoly competition in orderly anarchy status, alliance management in rigid hierarchy status, the dual-track embedded competition in loose hierarchy status, and quasi-perfect competition in chaotic anarchy status. In the end, the article verified the common modes of great power interaction, which are reflected in the competition between the U.S. and the USSR, differing interests between hegemon and allies inside the hegemon alliance, and U.S.-China competition.

European Critical Analytics in Search of Answers to New Challenges

Until today, the European Union (EU) has associated its foreign policy with normative power, which is the main instrument of soſt power. However, the crisis of global governance has affected the global strategy of the EU. The article explores the most pressing of these changes. The research was based on official publications made by various European think tanks and individual analysts. The EU has an effective mechanism for interaction between think tanks and political leaders. As a result, the European analytics can justify various concepts and approaches that later acquire legislative forms. Also, the scientific analytics makes it possible to test the decisions being made. The article focuses on the following EU issues: new strategic culture; geopolitics and normative power in strategic documents; strategic autonomy; differentiation and fragmentation as policy tools; the end of unanimity in making responsible decisions; the concept of pragmatic federalism; military development; the so-called Strategic Compass; the Russian military special operation and the concept of world order, etc.

The Cyber Era`s Character of War

The nature of war is often considered unchanged, although in the cyber era the concept of war, weapon, and fighter have become blurred. Instead, the character of war is constantly changing and is always unique. The character of war is not similar at different battle domains or levels of warfare, which complicates the course of war. A serious deviation from a strategic-level perception of war character in relation to an operational or tactical level perception character of war can result in defeat.
 The fog of war has intensified, although the situational awareness of conventional battlefields has clarified due to advances in technology. Technology is a key factor in shaping the war character of the cyber era, depending on the point of view, in 4th or 5th generation warfare. The nature of the next generation warfare and the formation of the character of war may be determined by the Artificial Intelligence or other Emerging and Disruptive Technologies, which itself develops and uses technology or some other technology, not yet known to us.
 This paper seeks to find factors that influence the formation of the cyber era`s war character and its transformation in Western and Russian military thinking. The aim is to describe the opportunities and challenges associated with the use of advanced technology in the military purpose. This review is based on the NATO`s and the Russia`s strategy papers. Theoreticallly, this paper draws on the theory of the character of war, which is applied to the question under study through the theory of strategic culture. An integrative literature analysis has been used as the research method.
 The key findings of the paper are that Russia and the West share the view that a war-like battle is already under way in the cyberspace. That requires an faster and better capacity to utilize advanced technologies as part of or in support of weapons systems. Russia and the West are struggling with the moral, legal, and technical problems associated with the use of advanced technology, but are aware of its necessity in the cyber warfare.
 

Engaging with emerged and emerging domains: cyber, space, and technology in the 2022 NATO strategic concept

ABSTRACT Cyber, space, and emerging technologies have transformed the strategic environment. Since the last publication of the NATO Strategic Concept, the Alliance has responded to this changing environment by addressing emerged and emerging threats at differential rates of operational and policy planning. Now, NATO must seek to holistically integrate these domains into the forthcoming strategic concept to increase the resilience and effectiveness of the Alliance. An adaptable and resilient Alliance that responds to the challenge of cyber, space, and emerging technologies will be best realized through three primary avenues. First, reaching preemptive consensus on actions short-of-force and consensus on space and cyber actions that trigger Article 5 will enhance collective defense and crisis management. Second, communication of capabilities and resolve will promote deterrence and enhance cooperative security among member states. Finally, cooperation with industry partners and among Allies to maintain a cutting technological edge is essential for NATO’s collective defense against emerging threats and enhances cooperative security through a common strategic culture of innovation. It is essential that NATO prevents cyber, space, and emerging technologies from being understood and actioned in isolation, and instead thoughtfully integrates technologies into the Alliances’ key tasks.

Why Russia attacked Ukraine: Strategic culture and radicalized narratives

ABSTRACT This article explores Russia’s attack on Ukraine using the lens of strategic culture. Specifically, two strands in Russian strategic culture are identified. The first is a deep-seated sense of vulnerability, especially vis-à-vis “the West.” To counter this perceived threat, Russia’s national security establishment has long emphasized the importance of possessing strategic depth and buffer zones. The second strand revolves around a feeling of entitlement to great power status. A central component in Russia’s great power vision is the right to have a sphere of influence in its Eurasian neighborhood. The article shows that Kremlin officials perceived Ukraine’s drift toward the West as a major threat to both Russia’s security interests and its status aspirations. As a result, Russia’s rhetorical milieu regarding Ukraine became increasingly radicalized. The article concludes that this provided the discursive and intellectual habitat that enabled Putin to launch a large-scale attack.

Opinions on the Definitions and Interpretations of Some Concepts from Russian Military Thinking and Theory

There is an abundance of perspectives and interpretations about the practices and actions of the Russian Federation on states and individuals, especially at the information level. However, in some respects, Western perspectives tend to simplify Russian actions and categorise them as zero-sum games. In this respect, the paper tries to interpret the actions of the Russian Federation, especially at the informational level, by defining key concepts, as well as to provide a perspective on how Russian military theorists use the notion of “hostile actions” in the context of designing peacetime operations. Moreover, the complexity of the Russian military theoretical background is highlighted, with brief comparisons between the theoretical forms of some concepts from the Soviet period and the present. The paper also reviews some conceptions of the hybrid form of Russian action, attempts to synthesise certain views of Russian military theorists and, based on Russian strategic culture, to show the levels of action in the context of a series of operations. Finally, the paper proposes an orientation model that addresses a holistic perspective on how the subversive and informational actions of the Russian Federation can influence the policy and security of a state targeting the individual, society and the political system.

Opinii privind definirea și interpretarea unor concepte din gândirea și teoria militară rusă

There is an abundance of perspectives and interpretations about the practices and actions of the Russian Federation on states and individuals, especially at the information level. However, in some respects, Western perspectives tend to simplify Russian actions and categorise them as zero-sum games. In this respect, the paper tries to interpret the actions of the Russian Federation, especially at the informational level, by defining key concepts, as well as to provide a perspective on how Russian military theorists use the notion of “hostile actions” in the context of designing peacetime operations. Moreover, the complexity of the Russian military theoretical background is highlighted, with brief comparisons between the theoretical forms of some concepts from the Soviet period and the present. The paper also reviews some conceptions of the hybrid form of Russian action, attempts to synthesise certain views of Russian military theorists and, based on Russian strategic culture, to show the levels of action in the context of a series of operations. Finally, the paper proposes an orientation model that addresses a holistic perspective on how the subversive and informational actions of the Russian Federation can influence the policy and security of a state targeting the individual, society and the political system.

Analysis of the Process of Devising a Draft Military Strategy of the Republic of Slovenia

Abstract The revision or drafting of strategic documents is a consequence of and a reflection of changes in the international security environment. The attitude of a state or a supranational entity towards these documents is the best indicator of the state of »strategic culture« in that state or entity. NATO, the EU and many other Allies have over the past period overhauled or adopted completely new strategic documents in the defence and military fields. The Slovenian Armed Forces have also carried out the process of devising the draft Military Strategy of the Republic of Slovenia. The article presents an analysis of this process as a contribution to further exchange of views and systematization of military thought in the Slovenian Armed Forces.