Storage Options Research Articles

Hydrogen storage methods by lithium borohydride

This paper addresses the urgent need for efficient hydrogen storage methods in the context of combating climate change and transitioning to sustainable energy sources. Among various storage options, LiBH4 is highlighted for its high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities, critical factors in determining its suitability for energy applications. However, challenges arise due to its high thermolysis temperature, which poses difficulties, especially in applications like automotive use where high temperatures are required. The commercial viability of LiBH4 remains a significant obstacle due to the nascent stage of chemical hydride technology and the absence of large-scale production facilities. Environmental concerns also loom large, as the production of LiBH4 relies on extensive mining of lithium and boron, known for their environmental impact. Furthermore, the economic feasibility of LiBH4 as a hydrogen storage medium is questioned, given the substantial portion of total expenses attributed to hydrogen costs, affecting all methods except those based on fossil fuels or electricity. Nevertheless, there is optimism that with technological advancements and improved infrastructure, the costs associated with LiBH4 and hydrogen storage overall may decrease over time.In conclusion, while LiBH4 presents promising energy density characteristics, its practical implementation faces challenges such as high production costs, environmental concerns, and technological limitations. Overcoming these obstacles is crucial for realizing a sustainable and carbon-free energy landscape driven by hydrogen.

Tele-Trafficking of Virtual Data Storage Obtained from Smart Grid by Replicated Gluster in Syntose Environment

One of the most important developments in the energy industry is the evolution of smart grids, which record minute details of voltage levels, energy usage, and other critical electrical variables through General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)-enabled meters. This phenomenon creates an extensive dataset for the optimization of the grid system. However, the minute-by-minute energy details recorded by GPRS meters are challenging to store and manage in physical storage resources (old techniques lead to a memory shortage). This study investigates using the distributed file system, replicated Gluster, as a reliable storage option for handling and protecting the enormous volumes of data produced by smart grid components. This study performs two essential tasks. (1) The storage of virtual data received from GPRS meters and load flow analysis of SynerGee Electric 4.0 software from the smart grid (we have extracted electrical data from 16 outgoing feeders, distributed lines, in this manuscript). (2) Tele-trafficking is performed to check the performance of replicated Gluster (RG) for virtual data (electrical data received from the smart grid) storage in terms of User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), data flow, and jitter delays. This storage technique provides more opportuni11ty to analyze and perform smart techniques efficiently for future requirement, analysis, and load estimation in smart grids compared to traditional storage methods.

Dynamics of hydrogen storage in subsurface saline aquifers: A computational and experimental pore-scale displacement study

The catastrophic effects of climate change can be mitigated by transitioning to renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydropower while utilizing hydrogen (H2) as an energy carrier. As renewable fuel sources are intermittent and location-specific, large-scale, long-term storage options for H2 must be explored with high necessity. Subsurface hydrogen storage in saline aquifers provides a vital scope to store H2 gas in available pore voids with minimal environmental risk. In this work, a highly heterogeneous porous micromodel was used to study the immiscible two-phase dynamics at high-temperature, high-pressure saline aquifer conditions using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation based on volume of fluid (VOF) method. A set of microfluidic experiments were carried out under atmospheric conditions to validate the numerical model. The VOF model was observed to show good agreement with microfluidic experiments. An unstable displacement pattern with viscous fingering was observed during various flow conditions that captured high pressure (15 and 25 MPa) and temperature conditions (323 and 343 K). It was observed that fingering displacement of brine limits the storage spaces for hydrogen, which consequently follows the high permeable path. As a result, only 0.272 fraction of brine was invaded by the H2 at a temperature of 323 K and pressure of 15 MPa. A comparison between H2-brine and nitrogen (N2)-brine flow dynamics revealed a 46% less storage capacity of porous media for H2. Formations bearing high temperature (343 K) showed an 11.27% increase in H2 storage capacity, while pressure increase had negligible effect. At low capillary number (Ca), more snap-off effects resulted in higher trapping of H2 gas. This study aims to provide meaningful insights into the complexities of flow dynamics and displacement patterns that are crucial for optimizing hydrogen storage efficiency in saline aquifers and for potential ‘white’ hydrogen production.

Modulating Valence Electrons and Na Occupancy in Layered Cathodes for High-Performance Na-Ion Batteries.

Na-ion batteries (NIBs) hold promise as a leading option for large-scale energy storage. However, their development faces challenges due to the lack of high-performance cathode materials. P2-type layered oxides are seen as potential cathode materials for NIBs due to higher structure stability, yet their commercialization is hindered by limited capacity and subpar phase transitions during Na extraction and insertion at high voltages. In this study, we introduce a new P2-type cathode material, Na0.76Ni0.23Li0.1Ti0.02Mn0.65O1.998F0.02 (NLTMOF), synthesized with ternary Li/Ti/F substitution. This modification of ternary Li/Ti/F substitution significantly tailors the electronic structures, increasing the number of valence electrons near the Fermi energy level. This facilitates the electronic conductivity and their involvement in charge compensation, thereby enhancing reversible capacity. Additionally, ternary doping synergistically adjusts the Na occupancy at the Na layer for favorable Na extraction without P2-O2 phase transitions even under a high voltage of 4.4 V, boosting cycling stability. As a result, NLTMOF demonstrates a reversible capacity of 110.0 and 132.2 mAh g-1 at 2-4.2 and 2-4.4 V, respectively, and maintains greatly enhanced cycling stability over long cycles. This study sheds light on the design of transition metal oxides for advanced cathode materials through the modulation of electronic structure and Na occupancy in cathode materials, thus promoting the development of NIBs.

Pumped-storage hydropower and hydrogen storage for meeting water and energy demand through a hybrid renewable energy system

The majority of the Greek islands have autonomous energy stations, which use fossil fuels to produce electricity in order to meet electricity demand. Also, the water in the network is not fit for consumption. In this paper, the potential development of a hybrid renewable energy system is examined to address the issue of generating drinking water (desalination) and electricity while releasing zero pollutants into the atmosphere. Wind turbines supply wind energy, while an additional amount of energy is stored using pumped-storage hydropower and green hydrogen tanks. These two storage options are investigated for the purpose of storing and distributing clean wind energy in a controlled manner. Three scenarios are investigated. The first scenario only relies on the pumped-storage hydroelectricity technology (88% of the total annual power demand is covered), the second scenario investigates hydrogen storage technology (83% of the total annual electricity demand is covered), and the third scenario uses a hybrid storage solution consisting of pumped-storage hydropower and green hydrogen tanks (95% coverage).

Thermochemical battery prototypes with conductive heat extraction

Thermochemical energy storage is a viable option for large-scale storage of renewable energy. Functional storage systems require a high cycling capacity and an efficient heat extraction unit to guarantee reliable energy storage and subsequent power production. This article investigates the performance of thermochemical battery prototypes that use conductive heat extraction via metallic rods. The thermodynamics and kinetics of the storage material, CaCO3-Al2O3 (20 wt%), used in the prototypes, were studied along with the cyclic carbon dioxide sorption capacity, which was retained at 60 %. The reaction thermodynamics and kinetics of this doped CaCO3 compound are similar to those reported for pure calcium carbonate (ΔHdes = 173 ± 10 kJ.mol−1 CO2 and ΔSdes = 147 ± 9 J.mol−1 CO2·K−1). The two prototypes were constructed using either a stainless-steel rod or a stainless-steel tube with a copper core as conductive heat exchanger. The thermochemical battery prototypes (∼1 kg) cycled >30 times, with thermal charging (calcination) and discharging (carbonation) at ∼900 °C. The storage material is sensitive to the operating conditions of pressure and temperature, which influence the formation of various calcium aluminium oxide compounds that either catalyse or inhibit the cyclic capacity. The carbon dioxide sorption capacity in the prototypes was found to be limited (20 %) and capacity loss was correlated to the temperature distribution through the storage material and limited by the heat transfer rate of the heat extraction system. The heat transfer performance of the stainless-steel rod was inadequate, while the copper core allowed for better system performance.

Optimal energy storage system selection for future cost-effective green hydrogen production: Integrating techno-economic, risk-based decision making, and cost projections

This study conducts technical, economic, and safety analysis of a green hydrogen production system consisting of a 1000 kWp photovoltaic cell, 3 options of energy storage namely lead carbon (PbC), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and repurposed lithium-ion (2nd Life Li-ion) battery, and an electrolyzer. Firstly, the system is optimized to maximum hydrogen production by adjusting equipment capacity and capacity factors, informed by a 1-h resolution solar energy generation profile. This optimization yields insights into the system's yearly operational dynamics. Techno-economic analysis was conducted to estimate the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) from 2020 to 2050, additionally, uncertainty analysis using Monte-Carlo simulation to estimate the range of uncertainty in LCOH projection from 2020 to 2050 was performed. Furthermore, a quantitative risk analysis, utilizing the process route index metric, evaluates the risk of battery explosions. Finally, this study employs multi-criteria decision-making to choose the best energy storage technology to produce green hydrogen from economic and safety factors. The result indicates that in 2020, the PbC battery emerged as the most cost-effective option. However, over time, both lithium batteries became the cheapest option with almost similar trends. In terms of explosion hazard, the analysis shows that the PbC battery is a safer option for stationary energy storage. When both aspects are considered, the preferred battery option is almost certainly PbC over the years, but in extreme cases where the decision-maker places significant emphasis on economic factors both Li-ion options may become preferable.

Exploring the prospects and challenges of underground hydrogen storage for a sustainable energy future

Compared to fossil fuel-based energy sources, renewable energy sources are gaining momentum worldwide due to climate control agreements. The Hydrogen Energy Roadmap proposes to generate hydrogen using renewable energy sources such as hydro, biomass, and solar. However, renewable energy source like hydrogen often has an unstable flow of energy supply, which can lead to temporary underproduction of the required supply. Underground storage options like depleted gas or oil reservoirs, aquifers, and salt caverns are used to address this issue. These underground gas storage alternatives have been used for various applications, including hydrogen storage. Underground hydrogen storage is possible in two geological sites: porous media and cave storage. Salt caverns are suitable for seasonal hydrogen storage at high pressures, while aquifers have the potential for hydrogen storage due to their widespread distribution. However, it is crucial to note that adequate reservoir properties and an impermeable layer are necessary for hydrogen storage in underground structures to prevent gas migration. Microbial and geochemical activities, often overlooked but crucial in hydrogen storage, can pose challenges due to their existence.

Improved thermodynamic properties of (Sc, V, Ti, Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni) doped NaBH4 for hydrogen storage: First-principal calculation

Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) shows promise as a hydrogen storage option, but its substantial thermodynamic stability limits its practical application. Enhancing NaBH4 by introducing transition metals is an effective approach to enhance its hydrogen-related characteristics. Nevertheless, even with the most successful additives, the temperatures needed for hydrogen release remain too elevated, exceeding 400 °C, which hinders its practical utility. Using first-principles density functional, we have investigated the potential of sodium borohydride as a hydrogen-based fuel source. Our focus has been on the stable α-phase NaBH4 structure with space group symmetry F-43m (216), aiming to understand the impact of 3d transition metal (Sc, V, Ti, Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni) doping on the structural, electronic, and dehydrogenation properties of the NaBH4 system. Furthermore, the heat of formation and desorption temperature values obtained align with the stability and volumetric capacity criteria set by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Our findings indicate that doping transition metals at the Na site weakens the B–H bonds, thereby enhancing the dehydrogenation performance. Among the various systems studied, those doped with Sc and Ti exhibit the most favorable dehydrogenation properties.

Porous carbon-MnO2 heterostructures for high energy density aqueous ammonium-ion asymmetric supercapacitors

Aqueous ammonium-ion (NH4+) is gaining attention as a viable energy storage option due to the use of NH4+ as the charge carrier, offering advantages of resource abundance, safety, fast diffusion, and a unique storage mechanism. Despite these benefits, the development of storage devices with NH4+ as the charge carrier are still in the early stages, highlighting the crucial need to explore suitable electrode materials for the production of high-performance devices. In this study, broken porous carbon nanocages (BPCs) serve as the support structure to form a heterostructure with δ-MnO2 nanosheets (MnO2-BPCs) grown onto them, building aqueous NH4+ asymmetric supercapacitors (ASCs). Both MnO2-BPCs and BPCs act as host materials for storing aqueous NH4+, exhibiting high specific capacitance and long cycling durability. The assembled NH4+ ASCs present good capacitive performance, with a large specific capacitance of 223 F g−1 and capacitance preservation of 91.4 % over 10,000 cycles. The high energy density achieved by NH4+ ASCs is crucial for advanced energy storage thanks to their elevated specific capacitance and broad operating voltage. The balanced capacitive performance of the positive and negative electrodes is essential in enhancing the energy storage capabilities of NH4+ ASCs. This work provides a straightforward method for creating porous carbon-MnO2 heterostructures for NH4+ storage and paves the way for designing aqueous NH4+-based sustainable energy storage systems (SESSs) for capacitive energy storage.

Energy-Efficient Storage System Optimization and Recent Trends in Enhancing Energy Management and Access Microgrid: A Review

Energy is a vital component of our everyday lives, driving advancements in human development, economic expansion, and efficiency. Implementing sustainable energy storage systems is an economically viable approach to improving energy efficiency and regulating the generation and consumption of power. This study extensively examines energy storage, delving into several techniques, their practical uses, and the most recent progress. It focuses on environmentally sustainable alternatives for the electricity sector, including batteries, flywheels, thermal storage, and pumped hydro storage. The influence of includes compelling case examples, such as using vanadium redox flow batteries in maritime hybrid propulsion systems and advancing portable hydrogen energy storage devices. The results are encouraging, indicating that these technologies have the potential to be adequate replacements for traditional fuel sources, particularly in isolated areas where there is a critical requirement for energy storage. Moreover, this study thoroughly examines the integration options for energy storage in microgrids. It explores the complex aspects of the models, assessment indices, and optimization methods used in designing energy storage systems. This paper explores the capabilities of software used to determine the optimal size for energy storage systems. Furthermore, this study introduces and examines uncertainty analysis in modeling energy storage devices. This state-of-the-art technology has been created to demonstrate the effectiveness of energy storage systems in microgrids, providing crucial data for future progress in the industry.

Design of a two-renewable energy source-based system with thermal energy storage and hydrogen storage for sustainable development

A renewable energy-based system, including an energy storage subsystem, is designed within the scope of this proposed study to meet the fresh water and electricity demands of a community. The city of Imperial in the state of California is, in this regard, considered for a case study. The energy storage solutions are incorporated into the system to enhance the flexibility and efficiency of energy systems since solar and wind energy resources fluctuate. These energy storage options help offset the mismatch between demand and supply to provide feasible solutions practically. The current system employs storage technologies, such as thermal energy storage (TES) and hydrogen, to efficiently store excess energy for usage during peak demand periods. The parabolic through solar collector (PTSC) and wind turbine in the system are modelled using the System Advisor Model (SAM). Furthermore, the energy and exergy aspects of thermodynamic are considered when performing the thermodynamic analysis of the entire system. The Engineering Equation Solver (EES) is employed to construct the programming codes and perform a thermodynamic analysis of the overall system and its components. The effects of varying numerous parameters on the system performance are studied in this proposed study using a parametric investigation which is carried out through the changes in the ambient temperature, source temperatures, and mass flow rate of the current system. The results of this study show that the annual net amount of electricity generated by the proposed system is 74.90 GWh, which meets 11.7 % of the residential electricity needs of the Imperial City. The desalination unit in the system is also able to produce fresh water from seawater, meeting the needs of 4708 families. The current system further produces a total of 3379.53 tons of fresh water and 226.98 tons of H2 annually. As a result of the energy and exergy analyses performed for the designed system, the energy and exergy efficiencies for the overall system are found to be 47.5 % and 34.3 %, respectively.

The introduction of vertical solar power plants into the energy system of the European part of Russia

Subject of research: optimal placement and operating modes of solar power plants, taking into account the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Purpose of research: determine the influence of different orientations of photovoltaic power plants on carbon dioxide emissions Object of research: photovoltaic plants Methods of research: a combination of data coverage analysis models and an analytical hierarchy process Main results of research: It is shown that vertical photovoltaic systems can reduce storage capacity or reduce the utilization rate of gas-fired power plants. Without any storage options, it is possible to reduce total carbon dioxide emissions to 10.2 million tons per year.

Lead-Acid Battery and Supercapacitor Based Hybrid Energy Storage Systems in Microgrid for Energy Control System

Lead-acid batteries are a common energy storage option in modern microgrid applications. This study suggests installing an Energy Management System (EMS) that is managed by a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) consisting of lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors (SCs). Lower operating costs and longer battery life are the goals. Lead acid battery state of charge (SOC) depletion and daily cycle stress are reduced by SCs, which control and supply the high-frequency, power-dense section of the load cycle. But it's crucial to size the HESS correctly, taking into account load demand, available power sources, and budgetary restrictions. This article explains an algorithm that outlines the HESS's energy management control. One of the main advantages of using HESS versus passive systems is that it reduces the overall size of the system. By estimating future load dynamics using load current, the proposed energy management system primes the system for impending changes.

Comparative Analysis of the Stability of Overlying Rock Mass for Two Types of Lined Rock Caverns Based on Rock Mass Classification

Lined rock caverns (LRCs) are becoming the preferred option for air storage at sites where there are no natural cavities, such as salt caverns, and this storage technology is being developed and utilized in markets around the world. The stability of the overlying rock mass is one of the key factors to ensure the successful operation of LRCs. In this paper, a stability assessment method is presented that first calculates the potential fracture surfaces of the surrounding rock based on the limiting stress field and the Mohr–Coulomb damage criterion, and then, based on these fracture surfaces, solves for the factor of safety defined on the basis of the concept of strength reserve. Using this method, this study evaluates the stability of two types of LRCs, tunnel- and silo-type, under three different geological conditions. The results of the analysis show that the silo-type LRCs are more economical for engineering purposes. Also, this paper provides some guidance for engineers in site selection and preliminary design.

Advancing energy transition with novel biomass-solar based multigeneration energy system using hydrogen and storage options for sustainable cities

An integrated energy system is designed to produce various useful products, such as hydrogen, electricity, heat and cooling. This integrated plant utilizes various subsystems; solar power system, biomass energy system, steam Rankine cycle (SRC), Brayton cycle (BC), organic Rankine cycle (ORC), double-effect absorption system (DEAS), reverse osmosis system, and sonohydrogen production unit. The specific energetic, exergetic, economic and environmental impact assessment studies are carried out to evaluate the system's performance and sustainability. The engineering equation solver (EES) is used for these studies. The energy efficiencies for the BC, ORC and SRC are recorded as 29.69 %, 10.49 %, and 30 %, respectively. In regard to exergy efficiency, the BC, ORC and SRC achieve the following: 46.74 %, 62.73 %, and 53.43 %, respectively. Furthermore, the DEAS attains energetic and exergetic COPs of 1.67 and 0.65, respectively. Additionally, the overall system's energy and exergy efficiencies are found to be 37.68 % and 71.25 %, respectively. The results from the thermal energy storage system indicate that the heat production begins at 7:00 a.m., and the charging of the storage unit commences two hours after and continues until 5:00 p.m., in coinciding with the availability of sunlight. The economic analysis demonstrates that with an initial investment of $53.80 million, the integrated multigeneration system achieves a net present value ranging from $6.87 million to $173.4 million across different hydrogen selling prices, from $7000 to $13,000 per ton up to 2054.

Thermodynamics of reversible hydrogen storage: Does alkoxy-substitution of naphthalene yield functional advantages for LOHC systems?

The reversible hydrogenation/dehydrogenation of aromatic molecules, known as liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs), is considered an attractive option for the safe storage and release of elemental hydrogen. The LOHC systems based on the alkoxy-naphthalene/alkoxy-decalin studied in this work can become potentially attractive from the point of view of the thermodynamic conditions of the reversible hydrogenation/dehydrogenation processes. This work reports the results of a complex experimental investigation of the thermochemical properties of the reactants of the LOHC systems. The enthalpies of formation were measured using high-precision combustion calorimetry, the enthalpies of vaporization and sublimation were derived from the vapor pressure–temperature dependencies measured using the transpiration method, and the melting temperatures and enthalpies of fusion were measured using the differential scanning calorimetry method. The liquid-phase enthalpies of formation of methoxy- and ethoxy-substituted naphthalenes and methoxy- and ethoxy-substituted decalins were derived and used for the thermodynamic analysis of hydrogenation/dehydrogenation reactions and transferhydrogenation reactions.

Carbon capture: Storage vs. Utilization

Carbon capture and storage in salt domes or in inactive fields is seen as an appealing option to meet the ambitious objectives of the Paris Agreement. Captured CO2 emissions can also be injected in active fields to enhance gas or oil recovery. We examine the optimal scale and timing of these different capturing and storage options in a dynamic model of an economy subject to a carbon budget. We consider the socially optimal outcome as well as the outcome under laissez-faire. The social optimum can have different forms depending on the initial carbon budget, the fossil fuel resource stock and the stock of already injected CO2 in active fields. The level and convexity of the costs of capturing, storing and producing renewable energy plays a role as well. We specify the conditions under which each possible sequence of regimes – no capturing, only enhanced recovery, only storage without enhanced recovery, a combination of both or only renewables – occurs. We quantify our analytical results by calibrating the model and running simulations.

Deduplication using Cloud Computing

There has been decreased reliance on the deployment and maintenance of local storages as the cloud infrastructure has been consistently getting improved over time. The paradigm shift in the data storage department from local storages to cloud solutions has been aggressive. This is due to the fact that the cloud solution allows for a much convenient and hassle free experience that can allow for a much better handling and perseverance of data. There are a large number of organizations that utilize these services of which large number of employees access a singular file that leads to a lot of duplicates. The duplicates can take up unnecessary space which can be problematic with limited space and expensive online storage options. Therefore, there is a need for a de duplication mechanism where the duplicates on a shared cloud storage can be eliminated to improve experience and reduce storage consumption. The proposed approach utilizes the Amazon RDS approach which achieves highly satisfactory results. Keywords: Data Deduplication; Cloud Storage, Amazon RDS. Cloud computing, cloud solution, reliability, load balancing, encryption, secure de-duplication, data integrity.

MFGC: Minimal First Garbage Collection for Monitoring of Context-Aware Victim Selection

SSDs based on NAND flash are becoming a feasible secondary storage option for many computer systems. Because NAND flash memory is dif- ferent from regular HDDs, flash-based SSDs frequently have an interface layer known as Flash Translation Layer (FTL). Garbage collection tech- nique is required to free up space. Garbage collection policy is primarily concerned with cleaning costs and wear-leveling. To achieve the above design principles, we have proposed an effective minimal first garbage col- lection termed as MFGC. MFGC manages the blocks in the list, sorted in descending order of erase count. This list is divided into two regions: preference region and alternate region. The adaptive window for victim selection is used, which adapts dynamically as the cleaning cost changes. After the victim selection, effective data identification of valid hot page and valid cold page is done based on threshold and redistribution of them is done to free blocks. A Series of trace simulations is performed to evaluate the performance of proposed approach with other existing approaches. MFGC outperforms GR, CB, CAT, CATA and MCSGC by 85.5%, 77.1%,61.7%, 56.7% and 43.5% respectively.The outcome of the simulation demonstrates that our approach is superior to others in terms of erase and copy operations as well as wear leveling of blocks.