Stone Monuments Research Articles

Conservation of calcareous stone monuments: Screening different diammonium phosphate based formulations for countering phototrophic colonization

Conservation of calcareous stone monuments: Screening different diammonium phosphate based formulations for countering phototrophic colonization

Natural and Synthetic Polymers Used in the Preservation of Historical Stone Buildings

In this review, the rules applicable to the preservation of stone monuments, referring both to the selection of appropriate materials (compatibility principle) as well as the repair process itself was discussed. A wide range of natural and synthetic polymers used for reconstruction purposes has been described. An example of the use of polymers for hydrophobization treatment of historic stone structures at one of the archaeological sites in Tyritake, Russia, carried out by Civil Engineering Faculty of the Warsaw University of Technology is also presented.

An assessment of deterioration in cultural heritage: the unique case of Eflatunpınar Hittite Water Monument in Konya, Turkey

Stone monuments are important symbols of cultural heritage of countries. However, many environmental factors negatively affect these monuments. The increasing damage on the stone monuments and the danger of irreversible loss of cultural heritage have resulted in growing efforts for the preservation of the monuments. Eflatunpinar Hittite Water Monument in Beysehir, Konya, Turkey, is a unique Hittite cultural monument that has survived for nearly 3200 years even though it has been exposed to many environmental effects. In this study, non-destructive testing (NDT) was used to detect the degradation on the building stones of the Eflatunpinar Hittite Water Monument and change-deterioration maps were prepared subsequently. It was also investigated whether the chemistry of the Eflatunpinar spring water may cause deterioration. Additionally, the petrographic, chemical, and physico-mechanical properties of the rocks taken from the ancient stone quarry were determined in order to compare with the properties of the monument’s building stones. Based on the physico-chemical characteristics of the Eflatunpinar spring water and XRD results of crusts in building stone surface of the monument, it was identified that water can be effective on the formation of calcite and gypsum crusts especially in the lower parts of the monument. However, applied NDT methods and change-deterioration maps indicated that the deterioration as well as neglect and abandonment in the monument are mostly associated with the capillary effect of the flowing water through the structure and the deterioration effect is more apparent in contact points between the building stone and the flowing water. Additionally, in the building stones above the capillary front, the conservation condition is significantly better.

삼국시대 석비의제작과 양식의 변모

삼국시대 석비의제작과 양식의 변모

<p><strong>Description of <em>Myxacorys almedinensis</em> <em>sp. nov</em>. (Synechococcales, Cyanobacteria) isolated from the limestone walls of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra, Portugal (UNESCO World Heritage Site)</strong></p>

Cyanobacteria are photoautotrophic microorganisms able to colonize historic stone monuments, causing severe aesthetic, physical and chemical alterations to the substrate. In a study that aimed to fingerprint the phototrophic community of the biodeteriorated walls of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (UNESCO World Heritage Site), an unknown Myxacorys-like cyanobacterium was isolated. In this paper, we employed a polyphasic approach based on morphological, ecological and phylogenetic analyses of the partial 16S and the whole 16S-23S ITS rRNA regions. The resulting analyses allowed us to propose the description of a new species, Myxacorys almedinensis sp. nov. within the genus Myxacorys.

Structural form as an analogical source for structures of nature: two examples

Anaximander’s 6th century BC model of the cosmos was arguably influenced by analogies drawn from the monumental stone temple architecture of his day, with specific aspects of the model being related to the overall temple or its structural elements, or even its construction processes. Similarly, the scientists who discovered a new allotrope of carbon in 1985 were inspired by the geodesic domes of Buckminster Fuller to arrive at a structural configuration for the molecule. This shows that designed structural artifacts can play a role in scientific model formation by serving as sources of analogy for the structures of nature.

Nanoparticles Applied to Stone Buildings

ABSTRACT Stone has been widely used as a construction material since ancient times, and its preservation is crucial in historical and contemporary buildings. Biodeterioration and other alterations cause damage in stone monuments which leads to the need for repeated actions. Nanotechnology is increasing the development of new products for construction and restoration, and new treatments based on nanoparticles have been developed for stone conservation, such as biocides or consolidants. These treatments avoid the disadvantages of traditional products, such as limewater for consolidation or quaternary ammonium salts as biocides and fulfil some of the requirements demanded by cultural heritage, i.e., effectiveness, compatibility with the stone and its aesthetic values, and durability. This manuscript reviews some of the main advances in the development and application of nanoparticles as consolidants and biocides to treat stone cultural heritage.

Restoring stone monuments: Enlightening critical details by the combined use of innovative sensing techniques

The experience gathered during the implementation of long series of laboratory experimental protocols, aiming to study the mechanical response of restored structural elements, is summarized. Conclusions are drawn con­cerning the proper exploitation of the laboratory results in field applications in the frame of on-going restoration projects of ancient stone monuments. The need of continuous bidirectional interaction between the scientific per­son­­nel working in the site and the scientists working in the laboratory is empha­sized. The role of the Digital Image Correlation technique in quantifying para­sitic effects influencing the laboratory data is proven decisive. The need to use modern sensing techniques, providing data from the interior of loaded res­tored complexes (simulating restored structural el­ements), like the Pressure Stimu­lated Currents and the Acoustic Emissions ones, according to a com­bined manner is highlighted. The capability of these two techniques to monitor the damage evolution within the mass of the elements tested and to provide clear pre-failure indicators renders them flexible tools in the hands of engineers designing the restoration projects.

Evaluation of soft limestone degradation in the Sassi UNESCO site (Matera, Southern Italy): Loss of material measurement and classification

Abstract Soft limestone degradation is the main problem in the old district of Matera (Sassi), a rupestrian settlement excavated and built in the Pleistocene Gravina Calcarenite, which has been recognized as a UNESCO heritage site since 1993. The Gravina Calcarenite outcrops in a large area in the Apulian foreland, onlapping the Cretaceous Altamura limestone. It can be divided in two main typologies, the first one characterized by the predominance of bioclastic components and the second one mainly consisting of lithoclastic grains. All Sassi are built and excavated in this soft stone that gives a unique aspect to the town. Unfortunately, the decay of calcarenite materials is very fast and the calcarenite constructions are now in a bad state of conservation. In this work, we present a new method for the classification and the quantitative estimation of material loss in degraded natural stones by using Structure from Motion (SfM) and image analysis techniques. In detail, degradation patterns were described on 250 facades of Matera Sassi by using the International Council on Monument and Site – International Scientific Committee for Stone – ICOMOS-ISCS atlas. The peculiar decay morphologies have been related to the extent of material loss, especially with alveolization patterns that develops on the 76% of the facades. The relationships between the identified decay patterns and the lithological features were discussed, highlighting the higher susceptibility of bioclastic calcarenite respect to the lithoclastic type. Following this analysis, five stages of decay related to loss of material were determined and quantified. The proposed approach represents a new and easy method for evaluating the degradation stage of ancient buildings and for better assessing the long-term survey and the maintenance of stone monuments.

Deterioration and microbial colonization of cultural heritage stone buildings in polluted and unpolluted tropical and subtropical climates: A meta-analysis

Climatic factors, mainly rainfall, temperature and relative humidity, air pollution and biological activity influence the processes of stone degradation. This article analyses results of studies on microbial (mainly cyanobacterial) colonization of 32 cultural heritage stone monuments in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Cambodia, Laos and Mexico, performed by four of the six authors over several years. Principal components analysis (PCA) and canonical analysis of principal coordinates (CAP) revealed that stone type, calcareous or siliceous, affected cyanobacterial community structure in biofilms. Köppen climate class was important, more temperate climates grouping separately from more tropical sites. Highly polluted cities showed reduced cyanobacterial diversity, with centroid completely separate from the rest; Chroococcus appeared to be relatively pollution-resistant. Buildings at marine sites showed a different and somewhat reduced cyanobacterial diversity. The genus Gloeocapsa was the most frequent genus detected overall, present at all but two sites. Various cases are discussed in more detail, along with the accompanying biodeterioration, and special mention is made of black crusts seen on some buildings. Although some next generation sequencing analyses are discussed, the statistical analyses are based on results of standard microbiological techniques that have been in use for many years and were employed similarly in all the studies.

The Origin of the Porphyry Deposit Name: From Shellfish, Tyrian Purple Dye, and Imperial Rome to the World’s Largest Copper Deposits

Abstract The porphyry deposit name has a long and fascinating etymological history of over 3,000 years. “Porphyry” is derived from the ancient Greek word porphyra (πoρϕύρα), or purple. It was originally applied to a rare purple dye, Tyrian purple, extracted by the Phoenicians from murex shells. It was later applied to a prized purple porphyritic rock, Imperial Porphyry or Porfido rosso attico, quarried by the Romans from Mons Porphyrites in the Eastern Red Sea hills of Egypt from the first to fifth centuries A.D., and used as a monumental stone in Imperial Rome and Byzantium (Istanbul). The name evolved in the field of igneous petrology to include all rocks with a porphyritic texture, regardless of their color. Mining of the first porphyry copper deposits, which were originally called disseminated or low-grade copper deposits, started in 1905. As a result of the close spatial and genetic relationship to porphyry stocks, they became known as porphyry copper deposits. The term was first used by W. H. Emmons in his 1918 textbook The Principles of Economic Geology, but it was originally used more as an engineering and economic description, as in Parsons’ 1933 book The Porphyry Coppers. It was slow to catch on in the geological literature. It was first used in the title of a paper in Economic Geology in 1947 but did not gain widespread use until the 1970s, following the publication of seminal papers on porphyry models and genesis by Lowell and Guilbert (1970) and Sillitoe (1972, 1973).

The Detachment Physical Weathering Form Group Affecting Stone Building Materials at The Archaeological Site of Sabratha, Northwest Libya

The archaeological Sabratha City is a UNESCO World Heritage site located on the Mediterranean Sea coast west of the Capital City of Tripoli north of Libya. Like many other archaeological cities in the world, Sabratha monuments have been built using naturally existing stones which according to the rules of nature are subjected to continuous weathering processes and become damaged to varied degrees. The range of extension as well as the type of stone damage is dependent on the reacting stone materials with the natural weathering processes. From an important point of view, the preservation of stone monuments now has attained the care of the government institutions who are in concern. The present paper discusses the main physical weathering forms belonging to the weathering form group-3 "the detachment group" which has been established by (Fitzner, and Heinrichs, 2002, 2004). The methodology of this research will be based on applying certain forms invented by Fitzner and Heinrichs that serve to estimate every damage of weathering forms affecting the monuments of Sabratha City. A number of nine main weathering forms of the detachment group including about fifteen individual weathering forms were found to affect the whole monuments of the city with damage intensity degrees varied between non-visible damage and moderate damage (0 degrees and 3 degrees). To make it easy for observations, fifteen contour maps were drowning for each individual weathering form showing the damage intensity degree and distribution. To summarize the overall picture of the weathering form damages, linear and progressive damage indices were found and mapped. Diurnal and seasonal temperature variations; relative humidity fluctuations; salt crystallization; moisture and or water content are factors expected to produce such weathering damages. As a recommendation, the authorities in response are invited to take this matter seriously and should act to protect the built heritage of Sabratha City.

Hydrophobic and hydrophilic SiO2-based hybrids in the protection of sandstone for anti-salt damage

Abstract The anti-salt damage of sandstone protected by hydrophobic and hydrophilic SiO2-based hybrids is evaluated in NaCl, Na2SO4 and NaCl-Na2SO4 salt-loaded hydrothermal aging (SLHA) cycles. Although both hydrophobic and hydrophilic SiO2-based hybrids could prevent the sandstone from salt damage through improving the matrix strength, the hydrophobic hybrid performs much better protection than hydrophilic one. The sandstone protected by hydrophobic SiO2-based hybrid shows nearly no salt-damage, which is attributed to its excellent water repellence, high adhesive strength and good compatibility with sandstone matrix. However, the hydrophilic SiO2-based hybrid tends to induce an exterior-to-interior salt-damage behaviour due to the frequent circulation movement of water with salt to result in the formation of surface efflorescence and interior sub-efflorescence in the protected sandstone. Furthermore, the hydrophobic-protective effect is also confirmed by another alternative hydrophobic POSS-based hybrid to offer stronger protection in anti-salt damage than that protected by hydrophilic hybrid. Nevertheless, there lies the difference, the hydrophobic SiO2-based hybrid penetrates into the inner pores of the sandstone and develops a strong cohesion with sand-grain through the formation of Si-O bonds, but the hydrophobic POSS-based hybrid protects the sandstone with a weaker physical interaction between hybrid and sand-grains resulting in a fractured damage. Therefore, SiO2-based hybrid is superior to POSS-based hybrid in promoting the anti-salt ability of sandstone. It is believed that these results could contribute much to the future protection of stone monuments by different hybrids.

The Potential of Optical Profilometry in the Study of Cultural Stone Weathering.

The problem of deterioration of marble or stone monuments on display in the open air was raised in scientific terms around the mid-nineteenth century, correctly sensing the close dependence between the increased speed of surfaces alteration and air pollution. However, only more recently, around the years 1980–1990, emerged a need for quantitative data to assess the degree of degradation and the relative danger in the future projections. Non-destructive techniques can be an important aid in assessing the state of degradation and, above all, its speed, directly on the most important monuments exposed to the urban environment. In this work we discuss some non-destructive techniques able to evaluate the alteration of the surface shape of artefacts exposed to the environment through a non-contact survey of their surface shape. Advantages and disadvantages will be highlighted, as well as the problems still open.

Efficacy of fungal bio deterioration on stone monuments

Fungal ability in production of organic acid have crucial role in discoloration and degradation of different types of stone in cultural heritage objects. The aim of work was to study the Microfungi community on stone deteriorated Sample which were collected from Murugan Temple and Vinayagar Temple at Manapparai, both in Tamilnadu. Stone objects may support novel communities of microorganisms that are active in biodeterioration process. In this Research work, the ability of fungi producing Organic acids were analysed, Five fungi isolates were identified. Additionally, Growth rate of fungal isolates were observed in three different Enrichment medium (Glucose, Sucrose & Maltose as Carbon Source).The Wet and Dry weight of fungal mat was measured. The dry weight biomass was maximum in maltose enriched medium

스핀 영상을 이용한 3차원 비석 새김 추출 기법

스핀 영상을 이용한 3차원 비석 새김 추출 기법

Correction to: Novel qPCR probe systems for the characterization of subaerial biofilms on stone monuments

A deep survey of biodeteriogen microorganisms reported on stone monuments in Europe has been performed based on the available literature dating back to over 30 years. The aim of the present study is to obtain accurate oligos for the characterization of subaerial biofilms on the basis of the most comprehensive collection of reports and case studies regarding subaerial biofilms, with particular regard to phototrophic and non-phototrophic bacteria, eukaryotic algae and molds. The obtained lists for eukaryotic algae, phototrophic and non-phototrophic bacteria and fungi were sorted by Genera and corresponding sequences in triplicate were downloaded by nucleotide database Genbank for a number of selected barcoding markers. On the basis of collected bibliometric diversity, multiple nucleotide alignments were produced and primers were designed for a qPCR assay. Primers were designed on conserved regions flanking a variable region, specific for each of the studied groups of microorganisms. Standard curve for absolute quantification relative to each group were determined for four markers. Then, variable regions in the alignments were used to design fluorescent internal probes for qPCR aimed for a multiplex reaction in which relative abundance can be determined. The authors propose this kind of cost-effective approach in the study of biofilms for the estimation of algae, molds and bacteria both for direct in situ analysis and in vitro simulation.

Fungal diversity and distribution across distinct biodeterioration phenomena in limestone walls of the old cathedral of Coimbra, UNESCO World Heritage Site

Fungi are powerful biodeteriogens and when colonizing stone monuments are often responsible for severe physical, chemical and aesthetical modifications. Recently the old cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal) was awarded the UNESCO World Heritage Site distinction as an integrant part of the “University of Coimbra- Alta and Sofia” area. The limestone walls in this cathedral show clear visual signs of biological colonization and biodeterioration. The aim of this work was to obtain an extensive fingerprint of the biodeteriorating fungal agents in this affected ancient limestone through the application of traditional cultivation and modern Next Generation Sequencing techniques. Due to high diversity of distinctive biodeterioration phenomena affecting this site, a rapport between the identified fungal populations and the different biodeterioration types found was also established and their importance for the monument preservation discussed. The results obtained through the application of this approach, not only allowed a robust characterization of the fungal communities colonizing this monument, but also elucidated that distinct fungal communities are dissimilar according to the type of biodeterioration analyzed. In addition, we verified that both cultivation and metagenomics methodologies should be employed synergistically in limestone biodeterioration studies in order to tackle inherent limitations regarding both techniques.

The momentum of studies of 11th- to early 13th-century polychrome wood sculptures in Europe

The publication of this volume, a product of the 4th international Medieval conference, “Medieval Europe in Motion, the Middle Ages: a Global Context” is a welcome opportunity to increase the momentum of study of 11th- to early 13th-century polychrome wood sculptures in Europe. While research on contemporaneous monumental stone sculptures and the distinctly smaller ivory statues has been widely disseminated, the inventory, stylistic and typological interrelation, as well as chronological clas...

신라 중성리비의 서사구조와 6부인의 지배이념

이 글은 포항 중성리신라비와 냉수리신라비, 울진 봉평리신라비 등 3비의 서사구조와 6부인의 지배이념을 고찰한 것이다. 3비의 서사구조는 기본적으로 동일한데, 왕경[중앙]에서 이루어진 敎의 議決[判示], 현지에서 이루어진 敎의 執行, 현지인에 대한 敎의 告知 등 세 단락으로 이루어졌다.BR 중성리비와 냉수리비의 경우, 敎의 집행이 거의 동일한 절차로 진행되었다. 중앙에서 파견된 실무자[白집단/典事人]가 하늘을 향해 교의 의결내용을 아뢴 다음, “다시 쟁송을 일으키면 重罪를 줄 것이다”는 경고를 拔[白口]하고, 敎의 집행 전반을 기록해 입증했다. 다만 중앙에서 파견된 실무자가 하늘을 향해 敎의 의결내용을 아뢰었기 때문에 현지 유력자가 별도로 현지인에게 교의 내용을 고지했다.BR 이때 각 비문에서는 현지인이 사는 공간을 ‘世/世中’으로 표현했는데, 복속지역에 대한 6부인의 인식을 잘 보여준다. 6부인들이 자신을 ‘하늘[天]’과 연계된 존재로 자처하면서 복속지역을 이와 대비되는 ‘世中’으로 인식했던 것이다. 신라 6부인들이 天孫으로 자처하며 하늘의 권위를 빌어 복속지역[지방]을 지배했던 것이다. 이에 6부인들은 복속지역을 지배하며 하늘의 권위를 부여받은 존재임을 끊임없이 연출했는데, 하늘을 향해 敎의 의결내용을 아뢴 모습은 이를 잘 보여준다.BR 다만 지배체제 정비와 더불어 하늘의 권위를 빌리는 측면보다 통치력을 직접 행사하는 면모를 강조했다. 중성리비 이후 하늘을 향해 敎의 의결내용을 아뢰는 면모가 축소되고, 비문 비중이 敎의 執行 단락에서 議決 단락으로 옮아간 양상은 이를 잘 보여준다.