Stone Statues Research Articles

Acerca de una posible estatua de Hércules hallada en las Islas Canarias en 1341

Some manuscripts from the 14th and 16th centuries pointed out the presence of several stone statues of a naked man in some of the Canary Islands. Thus far, it has not been possible to confirm the origin of these statues, nor whether they represented a man or a god. Several hypotheses are analysed in this article, but it is considered that the most probable is that these statues were those of Hercules, carrying in his hand the golden apples stolen from the Garden of the Hesperides. Their establishment in the Canary Islands would go back to the time of the first Roman emperors, in particular the Emperor Hadrian

The Process of Changing the Modern and Contemporary Name of Stone Seated Bodhisattva from Hansongsa Temple Site and Its Meaning

This paper studies the changing process of the honorific name of the Stone Seated Bodhisattva from Hansongsa Temple Site according to the modern and contemporary political and social circumstances. The National Treasure no. 124, the stone image, was carried out to Japan in 1911, donated to Tokyo Imperial Museum, and got the honorific name, 'Tara Bodhisattva,' and the record of the remaining Treasure no. 81, the stone statue, considered as Manjusri, was discovered in Korea. Also, The return of National Treasure no. 124 in 1966 is considered to be the significant event for the change of the honorific name again. There was a disagreement between Korea and Japan on the significance of the image. Japanese academia agreed to return the image because it considered the treasure was not worth possession whilst Korean academic circle treated it as a sculpture that represents the return of Korean remains scattered in Japan. After the return of the National Treasure no. 124, Stone Seated Bodhisattva from Hansongsa Temple Site has been studied actively through the methodology of stylistic analysis in Korean academia. As a result, the overall opinion that Manjusri as the National Treasure no. 124 and Samantabhadra as the treasure no. 81 should be reconsidered because, at present, due to the impairment of animal-shaped pedestals which is considered as the clear evidence for two figures, there is no way to distinguish which stone is Manjusri and which Samantabhadra. Through the above discussion this paper tried to reflect on the significance of the stone seated statues of Hansongsa temple site by looking at the changes of the honorific name tracing the modern and contemporary research history of the stone seated images.

Factors and manifestations of damage affecting stone statues

Factors and manifestations of damage affecting stone statues

Bioactivities of six plant essential oils against some isolated microbes from an archaeological limestone statue at the Saqqara excavation

The effect of microbial activity on the deterioration of archaeological stone items is a worldwide issue, and conserving them with low-toxicity, ecologically benign and naturally biocides is a difficult undertaking. Molecular identification of the microbial communities from a deteriorated archaeological object (Ptahshepses stone statue) located from the Saqqara excavation, Giza, Egypt was recorded. Six essential oils (EOs) (black cumin, clove, geranium, lavender, lemongrass, and thyme) were tested for antimicrobial activity against six degrading fungal and bacterial species. Alternaria alternate, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Cladosporium halotolerans, Penicillium crustosum, and Trichoderma viride and three bacterial species, Pseudomonas protegens, P. putida, and Serratia odorifera, were isolated. Of the most effective EOs, thyme showed the highest inhibition percentage (143.4%) against Serratia odorifera, followed by P. putida (135%), and Pseudomonas protegens (131.5%). Lemongrass and clove EOs had minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 0.5 µL/mL to 2 µL/mL for all isolated deteriorated fungal and bacterial species, while the lowest efficiency EOs were lavender, geranium and black cumin. It can be concluded that thyme and lemongrass EOs have a potential use for protecting the Ptahshepses stone statue from microbial deterioration.

L. R. Kyzlasov and the Stone Statues of Central Kazakhstan

The article describes the contribution of L. R. Kyzlasov to the study of stone statues in Central Kazakhstan. During the field season of 1948, he researched more than ten statues in the valleys of the south-west and south-east of the Kazakh Uplands (Saryarka), as well as various structures they marked. In 1951, L. R. Kyzlasov described nine statues and related stone constructions as a complex and compared them with similar sites found in other regions while making an attempt to define their origin. Extra information was obtained from L. R. Kyzlasov’s field journal kept in the archive of the A. Kh. Margulan Institute of Archaeology and his field sketchbook, which was published in 2017. L. R. Kyzlasov researched stone monuments of all cultural and chronological groups in Saryarka, e.g. deer stones, statues of the Saka, Ancient Turkic, and Qipchag periods, etc. Like all such documents of his time, L. R. Kyzlasov’s archeological records are rather limited in information value; however, they remain highly relevant because the location of some of these sites is currently unknown.

제주 동자석을 활용한 텍스타일 패턴디자인: 에셔의 대칭변환기법을 중심으로

The purpose of study was to develop a textile pattern design that reinterprets with contemporary sentiments and senses the simplicity of Donjaseok (stone statue of a boy stood by tombs), which is a local cultural resource conveying the originality and excellence of Jeju’s traditional culture, and the figurative elements of abstinence and the symbolic meaning of the Jimul(特物) icons. The textile pattern design was developed using M. C. Escher’s(Maurits Cornelis Escher) symmetric transformation technique for regular division of plane based on the principles of geometry and mathematical logic. For the purpose, the real figures and images of Dongjaseok were analyzed based on the theoretical research and figurative elements and the symbolic meaning to Dongjaseok.BR Therefore, the study extracted contemporary design elements from the simplified and humorous facial expressions of innocent children (protective expression, elliptical expression, humorous expression, geometric expression) and the Jimul held in hands (rebirth flowers, fans, bottles, spears, etc.). Then an extracted motif was designed to apply to the geometric configuration. The reconfigured motif was inserted into a pattern using the original colors of Dongjaseok and the Obangsaek(traditional colors) to develop the textile pattern. By doing so, the study contributed to Jeju

On the Buddhist Statues Excavated from Hoeamsa-ji in Yangju

Hoeamsa Temple in Yangju province was one of the most important Buddhist temples in the early days of the Joseon dynasty from the late Koryo, which was the place dwelled by Jigong(指空), Naong(懶翁), and Muhak(無學). Even in the early Joseon Dynasty, Hoeamsa Temple served as a royal temple. Yi Saek witnessed the seven Buddha statues of 15-chuck in height and the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara image of 10-chuck in Hoeamsa and recorded the marvelous features of the temple in his book, Sujo-gi. However, none of these statues remain in modern days, and only fragments of the small stone Buddha statues and other Buddhist deity sculptures have been excavated at Hoeamsa-ji Temple site. It is difficult to ascertain the substance of the Buddhist sculptures of Hoeamsa temple with only a few fragments of small stone statues. From the historical records and the analysis of styles in those fragments, compared with other sculptures in the early Joseon dynasty, we can assume that Prince Hyoryeong supported these stone Buddha images. Since the large Buddha statues that Yi mentioned above were already enshrined in the main building of Hoeamsa Temple, Prince Hyoryeong would have been focused on the construction of stupas or making tiles for the renovation of shrines for the Buddha except for the large Buddha statue. Instead, he would have sponsored the artisans to sculpt small stone Buddhas and bring them to buildings or shrines other than Bokwangjeon, the main hall.<br/>Previous research estimated that the materials for those small stone Buddha images were either tuff or sandstone. There are several differences in rock quality, stone particles, color, and homogeneity compared to actual rocks. Unlike the general stone Buddha statues in Korea using granite, the Buddha statues excavated from the Hoeamsa Temple are bright yellowish-white. And the rocks are so fine in quality to make the particles indistinguishable. When we see those pieces of Buddha statues in bare eyes, it looks like kaolin stone. It is necessary to analyze the materials of these stone sculptures and confirm the rock composition or materials through more precise scientific verification. Despite the prestige of the Hoeamsa Temple in the period, the absence of a large Buddha statue is unfortunate. Even if Hoeamsa Temple served as a royal temple, jaboksa, in the early Joseon Dynasty, the hostility of the Confucian scholars was enormous. The absence of the Buddha statues and the thorough destruction of the buildings in Hoeamsa proves that Joseon finally became a Confucian country.

Polyvinylamine Gel as a Cleaning Agent for Removing Mineral Crusts from Archaeologically Important Stone Artifacts

ABSTRACT When stone objects are excavated at archeological sites, they are often covered with crusts of mineral deposits on the surface, which seriously obscure their aesthetic value, especially in the case of polychrome stone statues. To remove these carbonate crusts without damaging the underlying painting and stone matrix, a gel-based cleaning system combining polyvinylamine (PVAm) and acetic acid is proposed. The structures of the PVAm cleaning gels were characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Employing samples of the typical types of stone used in polychrome statues (marble and limestone) and painted samples, the cleaning efficiencies, surface morphologies, and chromatic alterations resulting from treatment with the different cleaning gels were evaluated and compared. Based on the obtained results, the optimal composition of the PVAm cleaning gel was determined.

Three new Luticola D.G.Mann (Bacillariophyta) species from Rapa Nui (Easter Island) found in terrestrial diatom assemblages dominated by widely distributed taxa

BackgroundRapa Nui (Easter Island = Isla de Pasqua) is of volcanic origin, best known for about 900 man-made stone statues known as moai. It is one of the most isolated inhabited islands on Earth and studies on the diatoms of Rapa Nui are very few.MethodsLight (LM) and electron microscopic (SEM) observations of a single sample collected from Rapa Nui are presented. The samples (mix of soil and organic detritus) were collected from ground of cave entrance.ResultsThe samples were characterized by low diatom diversity and strongly dominated by terrestrial (soil) forms. Among the taxa present in the material studied were cosmopolitan forms of the genera Humidophila, Nitzschia, Angusticopula, Orthoseira, Tryblionella and Luticola. Whereas most of taxa of the enumerated genera were identifiable, only one among four Luticola species distinguished in the samples studied was identified. This taxon was L. ectorii, a cosmopolitan species known previously from South America (Brazil) and Asia (China). The three remaining species could not be assigned to any established species. Therefore, based on external and internal morphological features from light and scanning electron microscopic analysis, we describe here three species new to science, including: L. georgzizkae, L. rapanuiensis and L. moaiorum. All three taxa new to science are compared to established Luticola species and their significance for the global distribution of the genus is discussed.

종교적 상징과 공간 연구 : 카피쉐(капище)와 소도(蘇塗) 비교를 중심으로

Both Kapishche and Sodo also have two meanings. Firstly, as a symbol such as a stone statue and ‘Sotdae,’ it has meaning as a symbol of folk beliefs, a sacred place of folk beliefs, and a sanctuary. Both Kapishche and Sodo existed in the process of evolving from an enacted society to a segregated society, and the fact that Kapishche and Sodo existed in segregated societies led to the centralization of state power and higher religions as the ideology of the state’s ruling. Despite its adoption and appearance, it is evidence that the effect of folk beliefs remains for ordinary farmers/people. It also shows that, like most high religions, it maintains its form, but in its content, it embraces the elements of folk beliefs and takes the form of ‘religious syncretism.’ As a result, it can be seen that Kapishche and Sodo survive as exclusive local spaces that are alienated from the central power and in a way different from the center. Of course, there is also the possibility that the spatiality of the two spaces and their roles and functions have changed.

A study on the distribution and rock types of stone statues of Buddha in the northeastern mountain-foot districts of Kyoto City

This study focused on the distribution and rock types of wayside stone statues of Buddha in the northeastern mountain-foot districts of Kyoto City to grasp the culture of stone use in Kyoto basin. Investigations were conducted in 15 districts of Sakyo-ku that are adjacent to the mountains. We collected the information on the location and rock types of Buddha statues, as well as the data of magnetic susceptibility by KT-10 (Terraplus). We found over 1900 Buddha statues were celebrated in 360 places that were distributed in whole areas. Buddha statues made of Shirakawa-ishi, a type of white granite quarried from the northeast of Kyoto, were celebrated in 320 places and distributed in over 10% grids when the areas were analyzed by 100m mesh. Among them, 18 grids owned more than 20 statues. Shirakawa-ishi showed a stable magnetic susceptibility from 0.039 to 0.197×10-3 SI. 90 Buddha statues made of other stones such as granodiorite, sandstone, and chart from the adjacent mountains were found in 68 places. The distribution area of Buddha statues made of Shirakawa-ishi has possibly expanded over the 15 distrcts, while one of the boundaries was considered in the Kurama district. To grasp the stone culture of Kyoto, further studies on the styles and construction history of Buddha statues are expected.

Together or not? Spill-over effects of cultural goods displacement

The features of some cultural goods allow them to be exhibited in a unified form in one location or separated for display in two or more locations. The aim of the present article is to understand whether the decision to expose a cultural good in two different cities instead of the same location could generate benefits for both. To do so, the case of the Giants of Mont’e Prama is analysed. This recognised heritage complex of archaeological stone statues was found in Sardinia (Italy) in 1974 and first displayed in 2014. Since 2014, interest in these statues has increased among both residents and tourists. Moreover, the location of the exhibition was the subject of a strong discussion among historians and politicians. Historians preferred to display all the statues together in Cabras, where they were found. However, politicians and other authorities decided to divide the statues between Cabras and Cagliari, the regional capital, thus separating the collection into two exhibitions. This analysis is carried out to capture potential spill-over effects in visitors’ behaviour and identify which exposition causes visits to the other. The results indicated that the exposition system is a win–win solution, and the negative effect of overtourism is not observed.

К 75-летию археолога В. Д. Кубарева (всего одно письмо, устремленное в будущее)

August 14, 2021 marked the 75-th anniversary of the birth of the famous Novosibirsk archaeologist Vladimir Dmitrievich Kubarev (1946–2011). Stone statues, mounds and rock images on Altai are clearly visible to almost everyone passing by them. So it was for interested persons in antiquity, so it continues in modern times. During the initial acquaintance, it was only necessary to carefully record their location, sketch, photograph and introduce into scientific circulation, which was repeatedly done by travelers, artists, ethnographers and archaeologists, starting from the XVIII–XIX centuries. However, different researchers have done this with varying degrees of care, so it is sometimes difficult to compare the same statues or petroglyphs with each other. It can be seen from the letter of V. D. Kubarev that only in 1977 he discovered about 20 new stone sculptures in Altai and excavated a number of objects of Scythian and ancient Turkic times.

Une cave à amphores, une statue en pierre et une tête coupée de la fin de l’âge du Fer à Châteaumeillant (Cher)

Entre 2005 et 2017, six puits ont été fouillés sur l’oppidum de Châteaumeillant (Cher). L’un d’entre eux (St 269) a livré un ensemble de bronzes exceptionnels du iiie s. apr. J.-C. (Krausz, Coulon 2015). En 2016, une grande cave quadrangulaire a été mise au jour (St 437), elle contenait les restes de 33 amphores italiques. Cette découverte s’inscrit dans la série des « caves à amphores » qui ont rendu l’oppidum de Mediolanum célèbre dans les années 1960. À l’intérieur de cette cave se trouvait un puits (St 512), dont la fouille sécurisée a livré un lot de mobilier singulier datable de La Tène finale. En marge des quelque 1 500 tessons de céramique, et au fond du conduit, une statue de pierre anthropomorphe, un crâne humain avec des traces de décarnisation ainsi qu’un chenet à protomé de cheval ont été recueillis. La présence de ces objets remarquables évoque un dépôt particulier, dont l’étude révèle la nature rituelle dans le contexte de l’habitat laténien. Les deux structures forment un ensemble archéologique exceptionnel et complexe, inédit dans un site de cette période. Cet article collectif présente leur étude détaillée, celle des objets découverts et la chronologie de l’ensemble.

Находка каменной стелы с редким оформлением на могильнике Ршаан-Удзюр-Хад в Монголии

The article is intended to analyze and study a rare finding of a small stone stele found on a surface of archaeological site Rschaan-Udsuer-Had in Mongolia in the beginning of the 1980s. During the archaeological research consisting of the Soviet-Mongolian Historical and Cultural Expedition, the author had a chance to inspect this archaeological site, on the surface of which a low stele with an unconventional decoration was found. A narrow perpendicular stripe dividing the stone base into two unequal parts is embossed on the stone stele. A small circle is embossed on the front-end surface of a smaller part of the stone stele. Possibly, the stone stele may symbolize an ancient anthropomorphic character. Other various ancient objects were found in the site, related to different archaeological cultures. They include an ancient mound khirigsuur, menhirs, and plate entombment of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age located in the Central Asia. We have some reasons to suggest that the stone stele under study, divided by a perpendicular stripe and having an embossed circle on the front-end part, was used to schematically represent an ancient warrior, in whose memory it could be installed. In contrast to the “deer stones”, whereon different kinds of weaponry and military equipment including bows, arrows, gorytoses, swords, and daggers, are represented, this stele does not contain such images. It is possible that this rare finding of the stone stele should be related to pseudo anthropomorphic stone plates preceding ancient and medieval tradition of installing anthropomorphic stone statues.

The Amazonian statue. A biography of a famous and polemic artifact from Brazil

Abstract A large stone statue was brought from the Amazon to France in 1848 by the explorer Francis de Castelnau. It depicts a being, apparently human, squatting, with his hands on his chest. Now exhibited at the Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac, this piece created a strong controversy since it was made public. In the mid-19th century, several Brazilian intellectuals strongly criticized the arrogant attitude of the Frenchman who had ‘looted’ their heritage. In reality, the reasons for this conflict are much deeper since they affect the very identity of the nation, then in formation. In any case, even a play was written to mock the explorer. This gave rise to doubts about the authenticity of the object, which has persisted to this day. The authors therefore studied the artifact to determine its cultural origin, while analyzing existing references to compare it with other pieces from the Amazon. They were thus able to validate the statue’s Amerindian identity, nearly 170 years after its discovery.

SASSANID ARMOR: BACKGROUND, DEVELOPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

The aim of this article is to study the Sassanid armor types and their construction methods based on Sassanid rock reliefs, surviving fragments, armor depicted on Sassanid dishes and stone statues in Iran. The article explains the construction methods of different armor types used by the Sassanids during their rule and how Sassanids influenced the development of armor technology and were influenced by other cultures. Different types of armor used by Sassanids such as mail armor, scale armor, laminated armor (vambraces and greaves), and lamellar armor and their origins are discussed in the article. Hand, arm and leg protection as well as different helmet types used by Sassanids are also analyzed. These include simple bandhelm type, four-part bandhelm type, spangenhelm (strap helmets) type and lamellar helmet type. Different types of shields used by Sassanids are also discussed in the article. Next to archaeological finds, stone and rock reliefs as well as Sassanid iconography are analyzed to describe different types of armor used by Sassanids.

Dariganga Perception of Archaeological Sites

The article discusses the local perception of the two archaeological sites that create the native land of Dariganga ethnic group in Sukhbaatar province of south-eastern Mongolia. The first site is a complex of four stone statues at the south-eastern foot of Dari Mountain in Dariganga county of Sukhbaatar province. The second one is a complex of eight tombs with two stone statues at Tavan Tolgoi Mountain in Ongon county of Sukhbaatar province. These two sites and relics found in them are highly respected by the Dariganga people who claim to be the descendants of the people buried in these tombs, thus disagreeing with the researchers’ assumption that Dariganga ethnic group were not indigenous inhabitants of the area.The article gives a detailed description of the archaeological sites and relics as well as the oral stories and believes connected with them.

Detection of the TiO2 Concentration in the Protective Coatings for the Cultural Heritage by Means of Hyperspectral Data

Nanotechnology-based materials are currently being tested in the protection of cultural heritage: ethyl silicate or silica nanoparticles dispersed in aqueous colloidal suspensions mixed with titanium dioxide are used as a coating for stone materials. These coatings can play a key role against the degradation of stone materials, due to the deposit of organic matter and other contaminants on the substrate, a phenomenon that produces a greater risk for the monuments in urban areas because of the increasing atmospheric pollution. However, during the application phase, it is important to evaluate the amount of titanium dioxide in the coatings on the substrate, as it can produce a coverage effect on the asset. In this work, we present the hyperspectral data obtained through a field spectroradiometer on samples of different stone materials, which have been prepared in laboratory with an increasing weight percentage of titanium dioxide from 0 to 8 wt%. The data showed spectral signatures dependent on the content of titanium dioxide in the wavelength range 350–400 nm. Afterwards, blind tests were performed on other samples in order to evaluate the reliability of these measurements in detecting the unknown weight percentage of titanium dioxide. Moreover, an investigation was also performed on a test application of nanoparticle coatings on a stone statue located in a coastal town in Calabria (southern Italy). The results showed that the surveys can be useful for verifying the phase of application of the coating on cultural heritage structures; however, they could also be used to check the state of the coated stone directly exposed over time to atmospheric, biological and chemical agents.

충주 전의 이씨 석인상(石人像)의 복식 양식

전의 이씨 대사성공파는 7세 이천(李阡)까지 주로 무관직에 진출하였고, 고려 말에 이언충(李彦冲) 등이 계속 과거에 급제하였으며, 조선 개국 후 이구직(李丘直)․이사관(李士寬)․이서장(李恕長) 등이 공신이 되어 정치사회 기반을 강화하였다.<BR> 이후에도 이원효(李元孝)․이덕숭(李德崇) 등 여러 명이 거듭 과거에 급제하면서 16세기 중반까지 확고한 정치사회 기반을 유지하였다. 특히 3대에 걸쳐 4명이 충청도 관찰사가 되면서 가세가 더욱 확장되었다. 이 가계는 15세기 후반 이신효(李愼孝)가 충주에 입향한 후 지역사회에서 유력한 사족의 하나로 활동하였다.<BR> 충주 전의 이씨 묘역에는 8대에 걸쳐 모두 40상(像)의 문석인(文石人)․무석인(武石人)이 한 곳에 모여 있어, 전국에서도 드문 사례로 주목된다. 문석인(文石人)의 복식은 복두(幞頭) 공복형(公服型)이 24상(像)이고, 양관(梁冠) 조복형(朝服型)이 12상(像)이며, 무석인(武石人)은 4상(像)으로 모두 투구(鬪毆) 전포형(戰袍型)이다. 이것들은 대체로 15세기 후반～17세기 후반에 조성되었고, 그 크기는 피장자의 품계보다 당시 후손들의 정치사회 지위와 경제력 등과 관련되어 다른 지역과 비슷한 양상을 보였다.<BR> 복두 공복형은 16세기 후반까지 나타난 가운데 양관 조복형은 16세기 전반에 등장하여, 충주 전의 이씨의 양관 조복형의 조성 시기는 다른 지역보다 앞섰다고 하겠다. 복두 공복형이 17세기에는 나타나지 않은 것으로 보아, 이들이 양관 조복형 문석인을 더 선호하였음을 알 수 있다. 그리고 투구 전포형 무석인은 16세기에 조성되었으며, 무석인의 복식 양식은 규정에 얽매이지 않은 보다 자유로운 형태였다.