Stock Routes Research Articles

Dating Of Bush Turkey Rockshelter 3 in the Calvert Ranges establishes Early Holocene Occupation of the Little Sandy Desert, Western Australia

Systematic excavation of occupied rockshelters that occur in ranges along the Canning Stock Route of the Western Desert has seen the establishment of both a Pleistocene signal (c.24ka BP) as well as the fleshing out of a Holocene sequence. Recent dating of a perched rockshelter in the Calvert Ranges, east of the Durba Hills, has provided a Holocene record filling in previous occupational gaps from the Calvert Ranges. The extrapolated basal date of the site is in the order of 12,000 BP. Assemblages from this site illustrate repeated occupation through the Holocene with a notable shift in raw materials procured for artefact production and their technology of manufacture in the last 1000 years. Engraved and pigment art is thought to span the length of occupation of the shelter. The site illustrates a significant increase in the discard of cultural materials during the last 800 years, a trend observed at other desert sites. Much of the pigment art in this shelter seems likely to date to this most recent period.

Perennial grassland dynamics on fertile plains: Is coexistence mediated by disturbance?

Abstract The response of grasslands to disturbance varies with the nature of the disturbance and the productivity of the landscape. In highly productive grasslands, competitive exclusion often results in decreased species richness and grazing may allow more species to coexist. Once widespread, grasslands dominated by Dichanthium sericeum (Queensland bluegrass) and Astrebla spp. (Mitchell grass) occur on fertile plains but have been reduced in extent by cultivation. We tested the effects of exclusion of livestock grazing on these grasslands by comparing the floristic composition of sites in a nature reserve with an adjacent stock reserve. In addition, sites that had been cultivated within the nature reserve were compared with those where grazing but no cultivation had occurred. To partition the effects of temporal variation from spatial variation we sampled sites in three different years (1998, 2002 and 2004). Some 194 taxa were recorded at the nature reserve and surrounding stock routes. Sampling time, the occurrence of past cultivation and livestock grazing all influenced species composition. Species richness varied greatly between sampling periods relating to highly variable rainfall and water availability on heavy clay soils. Native species richness was significantly lower at previously cultivated sites (13–22 years after cultivation), but was not significantly influenced by grazing exclusion. After 8 years it appears that reintroducing disturbance in the form of livestock grazing is not necessary to maintain plant species richness in the reserve. The highly variable climate (e.g. droughts) probably plays an important role in the coexistence of species by negating competitive exclusion and allowing interstitial species to persist.

Grassland regeneration and reconstruction: the role of grazing animals

Grassland regeneration and reconstruction: the role of grazing animals

On Squatters, Settlers and Early Surveyors: historical development of country road reserves in southern New South Wales

Country roads are an important social, economic and ecological component of agricultural landscapes in many parts of New South Wales. Using the Lockhart Shire Council area as a case study, this paper describes how present-day rural road networks are a historical vestige of past land-use decisions; a collection of Travelling Stock Routes, pastoral boundaries of early squatters, rail reserves, county and parish boundaries, and an ad hoc collection of mostly 1 chain (20.12 m) roads surveyed during the late 1800s. Road reserves were allocated across the landscape at the discretion of early surveyors, so new land titles could access vital water resources. Nineteenth-century surveyors faced many difficulties in surveying the extent of NSW, sometimes resulting in misalignments which today give ‘character’ to many country roads. Road reserves were often surveyed 2 or 3 chains wide to allow for predicted usage and provide materials for road construction. In the 1870s, Travelling Stock Routes of varying widths from 1 to 80 chains wide (one mile) were gazetted, which often form an integral part of many country road networks. In this way, present-day conservation values of many road reserves is a direct legacy of land policies, administrators and surveyors on the landscape today.

Grazing studies of a Hyparrhenia hirta (Coolatai grass) pasture in northern New South Wales

Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf (Coolatai grass) has invaded large areas of grazed native grasslands on the North-West Slopes of New South Wales (NSW) and is widespread along roadsides and travelling stock routes. It is commonly regarded as an invasive, weedy species with low forage value when it is tall and rank, but may be more palatable when kept short, green and leafy. A study (1990–2001) of a naturalised stand of Coolatai grass in the Manilla district of northern NSW examined its herbage mass (kg DM/ha), persistence (basal cover %), and grazing value under 2 contrasting grazing treatments: pastures that had either large amounts of dry, unpalatable herbage [light grazing at 5 dry sheep equivalents (DSE)/ha] or were short, green and leafy (strategic heavy grazing at a stocking rate of 37 DSE/ha). Effects of pre-grazing treatments (slashing, burning, and no defoliation) were also examined and data (litter mass, plant basal area, ground cover, and soil and litter microbial carbon and nitrogen) collected to assess the long term sustainability of these grazing systems. Sheep grazed the light grazing treatment for about 34% of the experimental period, with the strategic heavy grazing treatment being grazed for about 7% of the time. Over the experimental period this equated to 6752 DSE grazing days/ha for the light grazing treatment compared with 10 120 DSE for the heavy grazing treatment. Herbage mass in the heavy grazing treatment declined to <1000 kg DM/ha within 6 months of the start of grazing and remained below this level until December 1998 when stocking rates were switched (i.e. plots previously grazed at low stocking rate were subjected to the heavier rate and vice versa). In contrast, mean herbage mass in the light grazing treatment was generally >3000 kg DM/ha from November 1990–98, but a high proportion of this was dead standing material that carried over from season to season. Mean Coolatai grass basal cover was 9.5% in November 1990, increasing over time to about 25% in both grazing treatments by December 2000. Coolatai grass herbage accumulation was highly seasonal, ranging from as high as 70 kg DM/ha.day in summer to 0 in winter. In both grazing treatments, forage quality was low for both green and dead material, with mean crude protein being 6.0 (green) and 3.4% (dead). Digestible dry matter values ranged from 41 to 62% (green) and 32 to 51% (dead) and mean metabolisable energy values were 7 (green) and 5.3 MJ/kg DM (dead). After 8 years, the heavy grazing treatment had lower (P<0.05) litter mass, ground cover, plant basal area and soil microbial C and N levels than the light grazing treatment, but switching of the stocking rates restored most indicators, except the soil microbial values.

The influence of land-use history on roadside conservation values in an Australian agricultural landscape

We investigated the influence of land-use history on roadside conservation values in a typical agricultural landscape of southern New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Historical information on the development of rural road reserves was collated from recently digitised 19th and 20th century pastoral and parish maps, such as road-reserve age and original survey width, as well as data relating to locations of old fence lines, county or parish boundaries, previous reserves, stock routes and road re-alignments. Ordinal regression statistics showed that road-reserve age and road width were significant predictors of roadside conservation values. Importantly, analyses showed that the first roads surveyed during the pastoral era (1840–1860s) were often of lower conservation value than roads surveyed in the 1870s, when major clearing of these landscapes commenced. Most roads were surveyed at one-chain width (20.12 m); however, pre-1870s historic roads, traveling stock routes (TSRs) and county or parish boundaries were significantly wider, decisions that have indirectly led to higher present-day conservation values. In separate analyses, historical data also formed a useful model to predict the absence of short-lived shrub species. These results highlight the influence and prevailing imprint of historical land-use on current roadside conservation values.

Response of a rare herb (Trioncinia retroflexa) from semi‐arid tropical grassland to occasional fire and grazing

Abstract Trioncinia retroflexa (Asteraceae) is a rare perennial herb endemic to Dichanthium‐dominated grasslands on basaltic soils in central Queensland. Trioncinia lives for approximately 5 years and some seed remains viable in the soil for at least 18 months. Population densities increased sixfold over 4 years, coinciding with recovery during a period of above‐average rainfall after a 4‐year drought preceding this study. The species’ lifespan, which can exceed 5 years, coupled with its extended seed‐bank viability ensures that populations can endure drought despite low levels of seedling recruitment. The restricted occurrence of the species to spasmodically grazed stock routes provides evidence that Trioncinia is sensitive to the continuous grazing that typically occurs in paddocks. The hypothesis that the species requires occasional disturbance for survival was experimentally tested. Recruitment was depressed with burning and inflorescence production enhanced with both burning and simulated intense spasmodic grazing after the first application of treatments. However, these effects were not evident after a second application of the treatments and there were no significant effects of treatment on population densities at the completion of the 4‐year experiment. Although not requisite, sporadic dry‐season grazing and burning of these areas would appear to be compatible with the survival of Trioncinia. This project highlights the value of stock routes for rare plant conservation.

Biophysical and human influences on plant species richness in grasslands: Comparing variegated landscapes in subtropical and temperate regions

AbstractA survey of grassy woodlands in the Queensland subtropics was conducted, recording herbaceous species richness at 212 sites on three properties (2756 ha). A range of habitats typical of cattle grazing enterprises was sampled and site variables included lithology, slope position, tree density, soil disturbance, soil enrichment and grazing. Results were compared with a previously published survey of temperate grasslands. Lithology, slope position and tree density had relatively minor effects on plant species richness, although in both surveys there was some evidence of lower species richness on the more fertile substrates. Soil disturbance and soil enrichment significantly reduced the richness of native species in both surveys, while exotic species were insensitive (subtropics) or increased (temperate) with disturbance. Rare native species were highly sensitive to disturbances, including grazing, in the temperate study. Although some trends were similar for rare species in the subtropics, the results were not significant and there were complex interactions between grazing, lithology and slope position. Grazing did not have a negative effect on native species richness, except in the closely grazed patches within pastures, and then only on the most intensively developed property. At the scale recorded (30 m2), the native pastures, roadsides and stock routes sampled in the subtropics appear to be among the most species‐rich grasslands ever reported, both nationally and globally. Native species richness was approximately 50% higher than the temperate survey figures across all the comparable habitats. While there are no clear reasons for this result, potential explanations are proposed.

Experiences with vaccination and epidemiological investigations on an anthrax outbreak in Australia in 1997.

Between January and February 1997, there was a severe outbreak of anthrax on 83 properties in north-central Victoria, Australia. Vaccination was used as a major tool to control the outbreak by establishing a vaccination buffer zone 30 km by 20 km. In all, 78, 649 cattle in 457 herds were vaccinated in a three week program. In the face of the outbreak, there was a delay before vaccination was able to stop deaths. In the 10 days following vaccination 144 cases of confirmed anthrax occurred and 38 cases occurred more than 10 days after vaccination. When all cattle on at-risk properties were revaccinated in October and early November 1997, there were only two confirmed cases of anthrax in vaccinated seven and nine month old calves in the following anthrax season. Investigations into the epidemiology of the outbreak were unable to establish a single major association for the spread of the disease by flies, biting insects, carrion scavengers, wind, manufactured feed, milk factory tanker routes, veterinary visits, animal treatments, movements of personnel between farms or burning of carcases. The weather conditions in the outbreak area were part of a long dry spell with periods of high daily and night temperatures, continuing high humidity over the period and higher than normal soil temperatures. It is possible that extensive earth works in the district involving irrigated pasture renovation and water channel and drainage renovation could have disturbed old anthrax graves. It is postulated that these works released spores that were dispersed in the preceding wet winter across poorly drained areas that formed the axis for the outbreak. The earth moving renovations establishing irrigation in the area were conducted in the late 1890s, and before the occurrence of anthrax outbreaks were recorded. The axis of the outbreak was the major stock route for cattle and sheep moving from southern Victoria to northern Victoria and southern New South Wales, and undoubtedly there would have been extensive anthrax outbreaks before vaccine became available in the 1890s. In respect of other outbreaks, the events in Victoria most resembled outbreaks of anthrax recorded in the United States of America in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.

Effects of glyphosate, flupropanate and 2,2-DPA on Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf (Coolatai grass)

Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf (Coolatai or Tambookie grass) has invaded roadside areas, travelling stock routes and grazing lands in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland. In these situations it is regarded as an undesirable species. There are no herbicides registered for use on this grass and little information is available on the long-term effectiveness of chemical control. Plots consisted of: 3 treatments imposed before herbicide application (untreated, mown and burnt); 5 herbicides [glyphosate, flupropanate (formerly tetrapion), 2,2-DPA, mixtures of glyphosatel flupropanate, and an untreated control]; 3 application rates for each herbicide; and 2 times of herbicide application (spring 1990 and autumn 1991). Herbicide effectiveness on Coolatai grass was measured by comparing reductions in dry matter and phytotoxicity up to 20 months after application. Six months after the spring application, yields were depressed (P<0.05) by herbicides (flupropanate applied at 4.4 kg a.i./ha and 2,2-DPA at 14.8 kg a.i./ha) and preapplication treatments (burnt plots sprayed with flupropanate at 1.1 and 2.2 kg a.i./ha), but their overall interaction was not significant. Ten months after autumn application, Coolatai grass yields were reduced (P<0.05) by herbicide, pre-application treatment and their interaction. Mowing and burning reduced (P<0.05) yields to 40 % of those in undefoliated plots. Yields were lowest (P<0,05) in mown (flupropanate 4.4 kg a.i./ha) and burnt (glyphosate, 2.16 and 4.32 kg a.i./ha, and flupropanate, 4.4 kg a.i./ha) treatments, where mean yields were <30% of the control. Seventeen and 20 months after application, none of the herbicide treatments gave 100% control of Coolatai grass. Glyphosate applied at 2.16 and 4.32 kg a.i./ha in autumn and flupropanate applied at 4.4 kg a.i./ha in autumn or spring were the most effective in the long term, reducing Coolatai grass dry matter yields by 70-80%.

The Canning Stock Route – Helen Burgess

The Canning Stock Route – Helen Burgess

The Western Hare-Wallaby Lagorchestes Hirsutus (Gould) (Macropodidae), in the Tanami Desert.

Study was of 2 small colonies of the rare western hare-wallaby (Lagorchestes hirsutus) in the Tanami Desert sanctuary of Northern Territories, Australia. Plants grazed were whole plant of Fimbristylis dichotoma and Calandrinia remota, leaves of Brunonia australis, Bassia astrocarpa and F. solidifolis and seed heads of Triodia pungens, Plectrachne schinzii, Bulbostylis barbaba and Eragrostis eriopoda. Cool winter fires lit deliberately along stock routes by nomadic aborigines provided firebreaks and resulted in different vegetative regeneration stages that suited the wallabies' requirements for cover and feed; the extensive hot fires started by lightning in summer destroyed habitat of the wallabies. ADDITIONAL ABSTRACT: Two small colonies of the rare western hare-wallaby (L. hirsutus) in the Tanami Desert sanctuary of Northern Territory, Australia were studied. Plants grazed were the whole plant of Fimbristylis dichotoma and Calandrinia remota, leaves of Brunonia australis, Bassia astrocarpa and F. solidifolis and seed heads of Triodia pungens, Plectrachne schinzii, Bulbostylis barbata and Eragrostis eriopoda. Cool winter fires lit deliberately along stock routes by nomadic aborigines provided firebreaks and resulted in different vegetative regeneration stages that suited the wallabies' requirements for cover and feed; the extensive hot fires started by lightning in summer destroyed the habitat of the wallabies.

Weed Control Research by the Biological Section, Department of Lands, at the Alan Fletcher Research Station

Abstract Full-time research on weed control is carried out by the Biological Section of the Department of Lands at the Alan Fletcher Research Station at Sherwood, near Brisbane. This research is generally confined to weeds of pasture land, reserves, stock routes, roads and waste places. (Weeds of arable land in Queensland are dealt with by the Department of Primary Industries). The scope of this station's work is reviewed.

Retracing the Canning stock route and other early explorers' routes in Central Western Australia

Abstract Introduction The most noted Australian explorers were often the most foolhardy. Leichhardt, Burke and Wills lost their lives as a result of bad planning or leadership and because of this they have gained a place in Australian history books and a reasonable number of people have heard of them.

Australian Cattle Lingo

TALK ABOUT TEXAS! Out in the Northern Territory of Australia there are some cattle ranches ten times the size of Rhode Island, where many a stockman was born, lived out his Biblical allowance (plus a healthy Australian bonus), and died, without ever leaving the property. Out where the continent's largest river may dry up for eighteen months, fence riders are still using camel trains. But this is in the Northern Territory, which is somewhat crowded-counting the naked aborigines, a population the size of Beverly Hills has an area twice the size of Texas to live in. Now 'way out west of sunset, right out back of beyond, out by Woop Woop, past the Black Stump, where the hand of man has never set foot, it's considerable lonelier. In fact, it's so far out, the people don't know beer. In this almost incredible loneliness of the Northern Territory and Western Queensland, and in the better populated pastureland of other states where conditions are unsuitable for sheep, there has grown up a cattle industry of some sixteen million head. This is only one-fourth the size of its American counterpart, but it has produced a way of life more vigorous and independent of foreign influence than any other in Australia. There is, of course, some American influence. The Aussie stockman, for example, likes to dress up in a gaudy movie outfit to go to town, even if there is no town to go to (the largest community along the Birdsville Track, the main stock route from South Australia to Eastern Queensland, has only seven houses on its one street). And even the blackfellow is more likely to have a guitar than trousers. Some motifs, too, are common to both areas, growing perhaps out of the basic nature of the work itself. The Aussie stockman gets just as weepy over his dying mates as the American cowhand, and both like to sing of their reluctance to be buried out on the lone prairie (outback) where the coyotes (dingoes) may gnaw their bones. Working methods are much the same, though the stockman prefers the long stockwhip to the lasso as a general working implement, and likes to leave most of the droving work to his preternaturally intelligent cattle dog. But the differences are significant, particularly to the linguist. The Aussie stockman does not speak quite the same language as the cowboy, nor does he sound the same. Like all Australians not educated in 'posh' schools, the Australian cattleman forms his vowels with a smaller mouth opening and with

The Canning Basin of Western Australia

With its centre at approximately long. 1240 E., lat. 200 S. (or iooo miles north of Perth, the State capital) there exists in Western Australia a huge, virtually uninhabited region. Its features consist of scattered, table-top hills and almost universal sandhills and, since the initial penetration by Colonel Warburton in 1873, it has received probably less attention than any other portion of inland Australia. Its potential as an oil-bearing area has, however, excited some interest since 1922 when the Locke Oil Syndicate made a cursory examination But it has taken the discovery of flow oil at Rough Range near the North West Cape, during November 1953, to rouse interest in the thorough determination of the geology of this region, whose centre (for practical purposes) has been taken as Joanna Spring. region has recently been renamed The Canning Basin after the late Surveyor-General of Western Australia, A. W. Canning, and the name is particu? larly appropriate for it is already commemorated in the Canning Stock Route, laid down by Canning during 1908-9-10 for more than 700 miles from Wiluna to Halls Creek. object of this venture was to stimulate the movement of cattle from Kimberleys to the nearest railhead at Wiluna, and thence to the metro? politan markets in Perth and on the Goldfields. Every 15 to 20 miles Canning sank wells and equipped them with troughing and windlasses, either by opening up existing wells sunk by aboriginals or by putting down bores. stock route was gazetted as being 5 miles wide. During 1911 drovers began to move cattle down the route from Kimberleys, the first to do so being Thompson and Shoesmith; they, alas, were attacked by blacks and murdered at No. 37 Well, known to the tribesmen as Libral. T. Cole, following a few days behind them, found their bodies, and then went on south. He reached Wiluna six months after starting, with the beasts in excellent condition, and suffered only one or two losses. But since then the equipment of the stock route has fallen into decay, being used hardly at all, and then principally during the recent war when a few drovers moved cattle south as the Japanese were bombing the Kimberley cattle boats en route to Perth. Thus Canning's original intention, to provide an alternative way to move cattle south, instead of by sea, was again proved practical. Today a subsidiary of California-Texas and Australian Motorists Petrol Com? pany, the West Australian Petroleum Co. Ltd. (briefly known as Wapet), holds an oil-prospecting permit (No. 30H) over an area of 151,000 square miles within the Canning Basin, and for a short way beyond the coastline. From Mount Blaze, on the coast, the boundary of this permit runs to its south-east corner at 230 47' S. and i25?23,E.; thence north-east to I9?45'S. and 1280 20'E. (where it turns towards the coast), and ends at 160 7' S. and 1220 47' E. in the Buccaneer Archipelago. huge area of the Canning Basin, about 210,000 square miles, may be described with comparative simplicity, being a region of few mountains and of universal sandhills. Its elevation varies from nil at the Eighty Mile Beach between Broome and Port Hedland, to 1080 feet at the base of the Southesk Tablelands

Canning Stock Route and Other Surveys

Canning Stock Route and Other Surveys

A Journey from Barrow Creek to Victoria River

EARLY in January 1909 the writer made an agreement with the South Australian Government to open up a line of waters, for a stock route, from near Central Mount Stuart to the Victoria river, so that stock bred in the Victoria river district might be taken direct to Alice Springs instead of by the roundabout route to Newcastle Waters, and then down the Overland Telegraph Line. Mr. F. B. Wallis kindly lent twenty camels and gave financial assistance as well, while the South Australian Government agreed to pay for any trial wells made at reasonable distances apart that would yield a fair supply of good water. On 8 February 1909 I left Adelaide with stores for six months, including a fair supply of dried beef, which proved a great success, though because it was heavily spiced the black boys objected to it and would only eat it minced fine as a hash, with dried vegetables. We bought fresh meat wherever possible, and also took in salted beef at the last station, Barrow Creek. My three companions, John Gettens, Harry Baxter, and Richard Douglas, joined me at Oodnadatta. They were all experienced bushmen, and used to mining and well-sinking. At Barrow Creek I secured two black boys, Tim and Paddy. Paddy knew the country to the west and north-west of Barrow Creek. The Hanson Creek country he knew well, and he had been as far west as the Lander Creek. For years past the rumour had been current?derived of course from the natives? that there were natural springs in the sandhills north-west of Barrow Creek. Paddy had visited some of these springs, and agreed to pilot me to them. They were far off, however, and the trouble was to find water low down along the course of the Hanson Creek, say 35 or 40 miles north-west of Barrow Creek, that would enable us to reach the first spring. From here, Paddy said, the distances between the springs were not very great. With the help of,these springs, if they existed, I hoped to be able to reach Winnecke Creek?so named by Alan Davidson on the journey when he dis? covered the Tanami goldfield. The creek was discovered by Nat Buchanan, a hardy old bushman, on his remarkable journey through quite unexplored country from Powell Creek to the Victoria river. Buchanan travelled with horses, and had only a black boy for companion. His route was north of mine, and must have been through the country where the ill-fated aviators, Anderson and Hitchcock, recently lost their lives. Buchanan, it is reported, had a very arduous trip, and only succeeded in getting through to Winnecke Creek by finding a native well or two. As no one has since visited the wells it is not known whether they are permanent or only contain water for a few months or weeks after the rainy season. Many of the natives' wells in the country he passed through are not permanent. From Winnecke Creek I hoped to reach the great south-east bend of the Victoria river, near which is the Mucka outstation of the Wave Hill cattle station. The Catfish set of yards, which are quite close to the bend, and the water-hole bearing the same name, were my real objective. The South Australian Government had supplied me with a light portable