Stereoscopic 3D Technology Research Articles

Using virtual reality for professional training practices: exploring the factors of applying stereoscopic 3D technologies in knowledge transfer

Current research has constantly highlighted the significance of developing a learning culture with a robust knowledge sharing and transfer process in knowledge-based societies. The emergence of stereoscopic 3D virtual technologies provides organizations with an opportunity to develop immersive and virtual professional training practices for employees’ transformative learning. This research gathered data from a survey of 326 respondents to investigate employees’ virtual learning experiences in a virtual learning environment (VLE). The results show that a successful VLE model could possibly enhance employees’ learning motivation, process and satisfaction. The empirical evidence of this research suggests that there are three key components of framework for actual implementation; they are (1) the careful selection of VLE; (2) the appropriate design of pedagogical strategies; and (3) the effective use of virtual stimuli which involves the factors of the stereoscopic 3D visualization, telepresence and multisensory interactions.

Modulation of cortical activity in response to learning and long-term memory retrieval of 2D verses stereoscopic 3D educational contents: Evidence from an EEG study

Stereoscopic 3D (S3D) displays provide a very realistic visualization experience to the viewers through a sensation of depth perception. Despite the rapid growth of S3D technology (S3D) in education, very little has been known about the effects of S3D on human behavior and the corresponding brain's responses over traditional 2D display during conscious learning and Long-Term Memory (LTM) recall process. The present study aims to explore the effects of S3D technology on human behavior and the brain responses during learning and memory using an electroencephalography (EEG) technique. A sample of 68 participants between 18 and 30 years of age was recruited to perform three tasks: (1) Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM) test to assess the fluid intelligence ability; (2) learning task to study the S3D or 2D based contents for learning; and (3) memory recall task to assess the memory recall and retention performance. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups―2D group and S3D group, in such a way that their fluid intelligence ability, age, and background knowledge about the learning material are controlled. The analysis of behavioral data suggested that responses of both groups in terms of reaction time after two months of retention were statistically significantly different, F(2.66,125.09) = 4.47, p = .007, ηp2 = 0.087. The differences between the S3D and 2D groups were identified by EEG analysis, i.e., the classifier correctly discriminated the EEG signals of both groups with more than 90% accuracy rate. The EEG source analysis showed statistically significant differences between the groups in the brain regions of BA 7, BA 10, BA 11, and BA 25, reflecting widespread neuronal networks involved in the S3D group as compared to the 2D group in the LTM recollection. In conclusion, it was experimentally showed that the human brain processed the S3D contents differently by utilizing more cortical regions and neuronal networks than the traditional 2D contents, which modulates the behavior of the participants by recollecting the LTM faster in the recall task.

Breaking Down Barriers to Learning with Stereoscopic 3D Technology: Comparison of Google Cardboard, Red‐Cyan Anaglyphs & Glasses‐Free 3D

INTRODUCTIONWe previously developed a free‐to‐download 3D virtual reality (VR) anatomical quiz app (VRBR https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=ca.MacAnatomy.VRBR2) and provided it to 850 undergraduate anatomy and physiology students in Sept 2018, along with the required Google Cardboard headsets. The app utilized Google Cardboard to allow for an inexpensive VR viewing experience of digitally‐pinned side‐by‐side (SBS) stereo pairs from David L. Bassett’s A Stereoscopic Atlas of Human Anatomy. Survey data was collected to determine how students used this new technology as a self‐test in their learning. Students expressed multiple barriers to using the app, including: the quiz questions were separate from the 3D images (31%), the app was too large (20%), students felt nauseated (19%), or the app was incompatible with their smartphone (8%). These issues led to much lower student usage than expected. Bottom line: it doesn’t matter how effective a new technology may be for learning, if students won’t use it in the first place.The PURPOSE of our study was to evaluate if student usage increases when barriers to use are removed by using alternate 3D viewing formats. We chose to compare red‐cyan anaglyphs to SBS stereo pairs because anaglyphs could address several of the concerns expressed by students.METHODSDigitally labeled anaglyphs were hosted on the learning management system (LMS) used by the university. Student usage of the anaglyphs was tracked over the first semester of the 2019–20 year and compared to the usage of the SBS stereo pairs over the first semester of the 2018–19 year. Student usage was determined from the number of quiz submissions on the university’s LMS at 3 time points during the term. Statistical analysis was performed with Graphpad Prism.RESULTSBetween the start of term and the start of the midterm recess (5 wks) the anaglyph study aid increased usage by 82% over the prior year using SBS stereo pairs. Prior to the practice practical exam at midterm, the anaglyph study aid usage was 138% greater than SBS stereo pairs. The average number of quiz submissions per week using the anaglyphs vs SBS stereo pairs increased by 135% (n=3, one‐tailed student t‐test, p<0.02).CONCLUSIONOur results demonstrate that red‐cyan anaglyphs are more readily used by students to view 3D images in a self‐study application compared to SBS stereo pairs on Google Cardboard. This suggests that students are more willing to utilize a new technology when the barriers to use are minimized. Although the use of anaglyphs increased the number of quiz submissions, the red‐cyan format distorts colors, introducing a new barrier to use. It is likely that a 3D format that also removes this new barrier would increase the use of the study aid even further. We plan to test this hypothesis by comparing anaglyphs to images presented on a glasses‐free 3D display (Alioscopy http://www.alioscopy.com/en/3Ddisplays.php). Qualitative data on the ease of use as well as quantitative data on quiz performance will be compared.

Automatically optimised stereoscopic camera control based on an assessment of 3D video quality of experience

Stereoscopic 3D (S3D) technologies have gained significant attention due to their wide applications. However, producing high-quality S3D content is still a challenging task that requires careful handling to achieve the artistic intent and maintain visual comfort. In this study, we present an automatically controlled stereoscopic camera controller that specifically addresses the challenges in S3D content production. The key idea that distinguishes our method from the existing work is that our method aims to predict the 3D Quality of Experience (QoE) in the production stage so that the optimised camera parameters can be obtained automatically. To this end, considering two interconstraint indicators, i.e., visual comfort and perceived depth, we collect and label a data set of S3D video scene clips and generate a 3D video QoE assessment model that can guide the optimisation of the stereoscopic camera parameters. We describe how to implement our system into a modern production pipeline that has been used in some projects, including commercial ones. The experimental results, including the user studies, demonstrate that our system enhances the perceived depth without creating visual fatigue and that our controller can make the production of S3D content easier and more efficient.

Automatically optimised stereoscopic camera control based on an assessment of 3D video quality of experience

Stereoscopic 3D (S3D) technologies have gained significant attention due to their wide applications. However, producing high-quality S3D content is still a challenging task that requires careful handling to achieve the artistic intent and maintain visual comfort. In this study, we present an automatically controlled stereoscopic camera controller that specifically addresses the challenges in S3D content production. The key idea that distinguishes our method from the existing work is that our method aims to predict the 3D Quality of Experience (QoE) in the production stage so that the optimised camera parameters can be obtained automatically. To this end, considering two interconstraint indicators, i.e., visual comfort and perceived depth, we collect and label a data set of S3D video scene clips and generate a 3D video QoE assessment model that can guide the optimisation of the stereoscopic camera parameters. We describe how to implement our system into a modern production pipeline that has been used in some projects, including commercial ones. The experimental results, including the user studies, demonstrate that our system enhances the perceived depth without creating visual fatigue and that our controller can make the production of S3D content easier and more efficient.

Reduced mental load in learning a motor visual task with virtual 3D method

AbstractDistance learning is expanding rapidly, fueled by the novel technologies for shared recorded teaching sessions on the Web. Here, we ask whether 3D stereoscopic (3DS) virtual learning environment teaching sessions are more compelling than typical two‐dimensional (2D) video sessions and whether this type of teaching results in superior learning. The research goal was to compare learning in 2 virtual learning scenarios—on 2D displays and with an identical 3DS scenario. Participants watched a 2D or 3DS video of an instructor demonstrating a box origami paper‐folding task. We compared participants' folding test scores and self‐assessment questionnaires of the teaching scenarios and calculated their cognitive load index (CLI) based on electroencephalogram measurements during the observation periods. Results showed a highly significant difference between participants' folding test scores, CLI, and self‐assessment questionnaire results in 2D compared to 3DS sessions. Our findings indicate that employing stereoscopic 3D technology over 2D displays in the design of emerging virtual and augmented reality applications in distance learning has advantages.

Evaluating 3D gaze tracking in virtual space: A computer graphics approach

Increasing usage of stereoscopic 3D technology in virtual reality, video games, entertainment, and visualization has risen concern on development of gaze-based interaction. To develop intuitive and accurate gaze-based interaction, estimation of 3D gaze in virtual space should be validated experimentally. 3D gaze tracking is generally performed in real space with rigid object as validation target. Thus, researchers in virtual reality are constrained on choosing appropriate evaluation method when 3D gaze tracking has to be performed in virtual space. To fill this research gap, we present design and development of a new evaluation method for 3D gaze tracking in virtual space. We have implemented computer graphics technology to develop virtual plane containing virtual 3D object as validation target. Experimental results show that the proposed evaluation method was able to support real experiment by proving the accuracy of our 3D gaze tracking system with average Euclidean error less than 1cm (Mean=0.95cm; S.D=0.55cm) in 74cm depth of workspace. Compared with evaluation method for 3D gaze tracking in real space, the proposed method even can be implemented when space of experiment room is limited by adjusting the distance of virtual plane programmatically.

EEG-based cognitive load of processing events in 3D virtual worlds is lower than processing events in 2D displays

Interacting with 2D displays, such as computer screens, smartphones, and TV, is currently a part of our daily routine; however, our visual system is built for processing 3D worlds. We examined the cognitive load associated with a simple and a complex task of learning paper-folding (origami) by observing 2D or stereoscopic 3D displays. While connected to an electroencephalogram (EEG) system, participants watched a 2D video of an instructor demonstrating the paper-folding tasks, followed by a stereoscopic 3D projection of the same instructor (a digital avatar) illustrating identical tasks. We recorded the power of alpha and theta oscillations and calculated the cognitive load index (CLI) as the ratio of the average power of frontal theta (Fz.) and parietal alpha (Pz). The results showed a significantly higher cognitive load index associated with processing the 2D projection as compared to the 3D projection; additionally, changes in the average theta Fz power were larger for the 2D conditions as compared to the 3D conditions, while alpha average Pz power values were similar for 2D and 3D conditions for the less complex task and higher in the 3D state for the more complex task. The cognitive load index was lower for the easier task and higher for the more complex task in 2D and 3D. In addition, participants with lower spatial abilities benefited more from the 3D compared to the 2D display. These findings have implications for understanding cognitive processing associated with 2D and 3D worlds and for employing stereoscopic 3D technology over 2D displays in designing emerging virtual and augmented reality applications.

A cross-platform solution for light field based 3D telemedicine

Current telehealth services are dominated by conventional 2D video conferencing systems, which are limited in their capabilities in providing a satisfactory communication experience due to the lack of realism. The “immersiveness” provided by 3D technologies has the potential to promote telehealth services to a wider range of applications. However, conventional stereoscopic 3D technologies are deficient in many aspects, including low resolution and the requirement for complicated multi-camera setup and calibration, and special glasses. The advent of light field (LF) photography enables us to record light rays in a single shot and provide glasses-free 3D display with continuous motion parallax in a wide viewing zone, which is ideally suited for 3D telehealth applications. As far as our literature review suggests, there have been no reports of 3D telemedicine systems using LF technology. In this paper, we propose a cross-platform solution for a LF-based 3D telemedicine system. Firstly, a novel system architecture based on LF technology is established, which is able to capture the LF of a patient, and provide an immersive 3D display at the doctor site. For 3D modeling, we further propose an algorithm which is able to convert the captured LF to a 3D model with a high level of detail. For the software implementation on different platforms (i.e., desktop, web-based and mobile phone platforms), a cross-platform solution is proposed. Demo applications have been developed for 2D/3D video conferencing, 3D model display and edit, blood pressure and heart rate monitoring, and patient data viewing functions. The demo software can be extended to multi-discipline telehealth applications, such as tele-dentistry, tele-wound and tele-psychiatry. The proposed 3D telemedicine solution has the potential to revolutionize next-generation telemedicine technologies by providing a high quality immersive tele-consultation experience.

Organizational learning goes virtual?

Purpose– This study aims to deepen understanding of the use of stereoscopic 3D technology (stereo3D) in facilitating organizational learning. The emergence of advanced virtual technologies, in particular to the stereo3D virtual reality, has fundamentally changed the ways in which organizations train their employees. However, in academic or professional studies, there is hitherto, very limited research has been found in understanding the framework of distributed organizational learning in stereo3D virtual reality.Design/methodology/approach– The aim of this research is to investigate the employees’ learning achievement in both the conventional in-house training program and distributed organizational learning approach in a designed stereo3D virtual reality to deepen our understanding of this undiscovered framework. In all, 76 employees from local fashion and apparel organizations were recruited in this empirical study. The quasi-experimental method was adopted to compare the experimental and control groups. The criterion-referenced assessment scale was applied as a post-test to assess employees’ learning achievement in a customer service management training course. A tailor-made stereo3D virtual learning environment was established to conduct the virtual training program.Findings– Surprisingly, the results of this research found no significant difference in both the groups, which indicates that, nowadays, the two completely different learning formats have become similar in organizational learning practices.Originality/value– This research, therefore, suggests a new organizational learning framework with three components: a blended in-house training, a distributed enhancement program in stereo3D virtual reality and an organizational memory system.

Stereoscopic 3D's impact on constructing spatial hands-on representations

While learning biological topics constructing depictive representations may be the first step to a deeper understanding. The referred to as visualization type as well as interaction type are supposed to have influence on learning with multimedia applications. Comparing 3D and 2D visualizations (both in combination with written text), there is little evidence whether stereoscopic 3D visualizations better support the understanding of biological topics by constructing adequate depictive representations. Likewise, insufficient indication is given of how the interaction type impacts these results (e.g. the ability/disability to move and rotate the displayed object). Therefore, our study focused on an e-learning environment dealing with the anatomy and physiology of the nasal cavity. Here, either (1) text and 2D visualisations or (2) text and stereoscopic 3D visualisations were used – both in combination with two interaction types (interaction/no interaction). Research subjects were 144 eighth grade students at medium stratification level. During a working phase with the different multimedia applications (visualization type 2D/stereoscopic 3D and interaction type ‘interaction’/‘no interaction’) the students were instructed to form the nasal cavity out of modeling clay. Finally, for both interaction types the 3D cohorts were by far more successful in representing anatomical details. Hence, stereoscopic 3D technology should be implemented in biological e-learning environments.

Applying Interactive 3d Education and Using Stereoscopic 3d Technology in Vocational Education

In this study, to increase the success and interest at lessons in vocational education, a new education methodthat is called interactive 3D education have been investigated. There search was carried out on 36 students in Kizilcahamam Technical and Vocational High School Information Technology Departmentand 18 of 36 students were used as experiment group and other 18 students were used as control group. Interactive 3D lesson material was prepared about Hard Drive subject accord an cewith Information Technology lessons curriculum. The 3dimensional models of lesson materials were prepared with Maxon Cinema 4D modelling program. Prepared 3 dimensioanal models were imported to Unity 3D game engine program. In Unity3D game engine program, interactivity and stereoscopic 3dimensional displaying were added to the imported 3D model. In the executed research, the interactive 3D education method has been applied to the experiment group and the traditional teaching method has been applied to the control group. In the research pretestand post test performed to the groups and results were analyzed, then “T” test was used to compare the averages. At the end of the research, it was determined that there is a significant difference in the levels of students learning between the experiment group which applied interactive 3D education method and the control group which applied traditional teaching method. Interactive 3D education method was found to be effective in increasing students interestand student success at lessons.

Investigation of visually induced motion sickness in dynamic 3D contents based on subjective judgment, heart rate variability, and depth gaze behavior.

Visually induced motion sickness (VIMS) is an important safety issue in stereoscopic 3D technology. Accompanying subjective judgment of VIMS with objective measurement is useful to identify not only biomedical effects of dynamic 3D contents, but also provoking scenes that induce VIMS, duration of VIMS, and user behavior during VIMS. Heart rate variability and depth gaze behavior are appropriate physiological indicators for such objective observation. However, there is no information about relationship between subjective judgment of VIMS, heart rate variability, and depth gaze behavior. In this paper, we present a novel investigation of VIMS based on simulator sickness questionnaire (SSQ), electrocardiography (ECG), and 3D gaze tracking. Statistical analysis on SSQ data shows that nausea and disorientation symptoms increase as amount of dynamic motions increases (nausea: p<;0.005; disorientation: p<;0.05). To reduce VIMS, SSQ and ECG data suggest that user should perform voluntary gaze fixation at one point when experiencing vertical motion (up or down) and horizontal motion (turn left and right) in dynamic 3D contents. Observation of 3D gaze tracking data reveals that users who experienced VIMS tended to have unstable depth gaze than ones who did not experience VIMS.

Model-Driven Framework for Design and Production of Low-Budget Stereoscopic TV Content

Three-dimensional television (3D TV) is expected by many to be the next step in the advancement of television. Due to significant financial exhaustion during the process of transition from analogue to digital production, low-budget broadcasters are not in the position to invest in a new 3D system. This paper proposes one model-driven framework approach to 3D TV production system applicable to and suitable for low-budget broadcasters.The target of the project is to define one of the possible scenarios for applying stereoscopic 3D technologies to low-budget TV production. 3D TV content production chain is described in the first step of the project. 3D TV production workflow is proposed in the second step. This step has two parts: the analyses of the production stages and their integral processes, and the definition of a problem space model which is suitable for low-budget 3D TV production. The preproduction, production and postproduction phases of a low-budget 3D TV production are described during the analyses of 3D TV content production workflow. The UML is used as a modelling tool. The behavioural description of a program production is modelled by the Use Case diagram. A state machine diagram is used to describe the dynamic behavioral representation and the life cycle of a 3D content. The flow and dependencies in 3D workflow are modelled by using the activity diagrams. The structural static representation (domain model) is presented by a class diagram.

Natural perception in dynamic stereoscopic augmented reality environments

Notwithstanding the recent diffusion of the stereoscopic 3D technologies for the development of powerful human computer interaction systems based on augmented reality environment, with the conventional approaches an observer freely moving in front of a 3D display could experience a misperception of the depth and of the shape of virtual objects. Such distortions can cause eye fatigue and stress for entertainment applications, and they can have serious consequences in scientific and medical fields, where a veridical perception of the scene layout is required. We propose a novel technique to obtain augmented reality systems capable to correctly render 3D virtual objects to an observer that changes his/her position in the real world and acts in the virtual scenario. By tracking the positions of the observer’s eyes, the proposed technique generates the correct virtual view points through asymmetric frustums, thus obtaining the correct left and right projections on the screen. The natural perception of the scene layout is assessed through three experimental sessions with several observers.

Development of gaze tracking interface for controlling 3D contents

Nowadays, the stereoscopic 3D technology is being used in variety of applications including, but not limited to, architecture, design, games, and medicine. The technologies that utilize the concepts of virtual reality have the tendency to be generic and provide the users with a realistic interaction with the environment. In order to control stereoscopic images, conventional methods had to use devices such as keyboard and/or mouse for the input control signal. However, it is challenging for users to control stereoscopic images by using these types of devices and it is difficult to obtain a desired accuracy due to the errors existing in the device. In addition, the major factor is that these methods do not allow users to feel the contents in a realistic manner. In this paper, a gaze tracking interface (line of sight) is developed to control the stereoscopic 3D contents. The proposed method is natural, intuitive, and more efficient compared to the conventional methods that use keyboard and mouse. Controlling various 3D contents including S3D games, tele-operated surgery, military training, and pilot simulation will be achievable through the proposed method.

The effects of egocentric and allocentric representations on presence and perceived realism: Tested in stereoscopic 3D games

Recently, stereoscopic 3D technologies have come to be used widely in various applications including movies and computer games. Stereoscopic 3D is defined as that which provides visual depth and details by exploiting the stereoscopic vision of the eyes caused by binocular disparity. Prior studies proposed important system features of stereoscopic 3D that may increase the user’s sense of presence. However, few studies, either theoretical or empirical, have investigated how these perceived system features affect the user’s sense of presence. This study aims to construct a theoretical model that explains the perceived effects of stereoscopic 3D features on sense of presence, and to verify the validity of the model in the 3D computer game domain. The study focuses on spatial representation and perceived realism as important mediating factors between the perceived system features and sense of presence. According to the Dual Mode Model (DMM), two types of spatial representation are crucial for perceived realism and presence: egocentric representation and allocentric representation. Egocentric representation implies representing locations with respect to the particular perspective of the perceiver, while allocentric representation locates reference points outside of the perceiver, regardless of his or her position. Research questions in this study are: How strongly do perceived expression and manipulation features of stereoscopic 3D systems influence spatial representation? How does spatial representation influence perceived realism and presence in a stereoscopic 3D environment? In order to answer these research questions an empirical study was conducted in a controlled lab environment. A total number of 257 users participated in the study and collected data was analyzed by using structural equation modeling with SmartPLS2.0. The findings are as follows: First, both the perceived expression and manipulation features of the stereoscopic 3D system influenced spatial representation, but the perceived expression features had stronger effects than the perceived manipulation features. Second, both egocentric and allocentric representation were found to affect presence. In addition, egocentric representation was found to affect sense of presence both directly and indirectly through perceived realism, whereas allocentric representation contributed a sense of presence only indirectly through perceived realism. This paper concludes by discussing the study’s limitations and implications.

Domain Model of Low-Budget First Generation Stereoscopic 3D TV Production

Primary aim of this paper is to propose one model-driven approach of software-intensive 3D TV production system applicable and suitable for low-budget broadcasters. The target of the project is to Fig. out one of possible future scenarios for implementing stereoscopic 3D technologies in low-budget TV production and to propose one domain model suitable for further expansion. Modelling in problem space is used as a research method in this paper and first step in modelling of software-intensive 3D television production is presented here. Behavioural description of program production is modelled by the use case diagrams. Domain model is defined and class diagram is used to describe structural static representation the low-budget 3D content production. Ill. 5, bibl. 12 (in English; abstracts in English and Lithuanian). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.eee.119.3.1368

3D or Not 3D? Is that a Question?

: Stereoscopic 3D images, although going back to the mid-nineteenth century, are becoming pervasive in cinema, the Web, electronic games, television, graphic simulations, personal photography, and the entertainment and education ecologies. The use of stereo 3D goes beyond a technology vogue to the creation of effective experiences that are more naturally engaging for audiences by conveying real physical depth perception and the illusions of tangibility and tactility. This paper claims that because museums are all about compelling, memorable, and visceral experiences, 3D will become an increasingly important tool for exhibitions, education, and interpretation; the challenge will be to know when, how, and why to use it. Stereo 3D is described and a trajectory of examples of past and current museum use is presented. The paper also provides a rationale for why, when many technologies are vying for priority and resources, stereoscopic 3D technology should be near the top of the list.

Analysis of the Motion Picture Quality of Stereoscopic Three-dimensional Images

The stereoscopic three-dimensional (3D) display provides a 3D image by inducing binocular disparity for the observers who wear special glasses. With the rapid progress in flat panel display technologies, the stereoscopic 3D display is becoming a new benefit-model of the current display industry, and several kinds of commercial stereoscopic 3D products have been released and are attracting people. Nowadays, the motion picture quality of the 3D image becomes as important as resolution or luminance since most of the commercial 3D products are 3D televisions or 3D monitors which are required to display a clear motion 3D image. In this paper, an analysis and simulation of the motion picture quality of stereoscopic 3D image is proposed, and a comparison of the motion picture performance among the current stereoscopic 3D technologies is also provided.