Verb Stem Research Articles

Особенности словообразования в мокшанских переходных говорах рузаевского ареала

The aim of the study is to determine the word-formation potential of the Moksha transitional dialects of the Ruzaevka area, which occupy border areas with the central and south-eastern dialects. Attention is paid to the suffixes that form verbs from verbal and nominal stems. The scientific originality of the study lies in the fact that the features of word formation in transitional dialects are considered for the first time. As a result of the analysis of a large lexical material, it has been revealed that in the word-formation system of the dialects, verbal suffixes constitute a significant group, for some of them the motivating basis is a verbal stem, for others it is a nominal one.

Verb stem alternation in Gongduk

Abstract This paper provides a first overview of verb stem alternation in Gongduk (eastern Bhutan, Trans-Himalayan). Verb stem alternation in Gongduk is conditioned both by morphophonology and by grammatical categories. This paper presents both the morphophonologically transparent as well as the phonologically opaque, paradigmatic stem alternation. The analysis provided in this paper identifies seven verb classes and a small number of irregular verbs. Additionally, this paper provides some diachronic observations on Gongduk verb stems and shows that different stem classes of Gongduk preserve derivational morphology (valence, direction) with cognates in other branches of the language family. Gongduk therefore provides important evidence for the historical investigation of derivational morphology and verb stem alternation in Trans-Himalayan.

From transitive to intransitive and voiceless to voiced in Proto-Sino-Tibetan

Abstract This paper offers new evidence from Stau, Geshiza, and Khroskyabs to address the question of directionality in valency-changing derivations in Sino-Tibetan. Examining Stau, Geshiza, and Khroskyabs causative and anticausative verb stem pairs adds to the evidence that in Proto-Sino-Tibetan, a number of intransitive stems are derived from transitive stems, in some cases as the result of *N‑ prefixation, and in other cases from voicing alternation independent of *N‑ prefixation. In addition, the proto-sigmatic prefix (*s-) does not cause devoicing in Stau, Geshiza, and Khroskyabs, but rather often undergoes voicing assimilation, and has more than just a causativization function. Furthermore, by looking at Gyalrong, Minyag, Tangut, Middle Chinese, and Old Chinese we emphasize that there is no synchronic evidence to support devoicing induced by *s‑, nor is there historical evidence to support the claim that *s‑ caused devoicing in Proto-Gyalrongic, or even at genetically deeper stages.

Die Konjunktiv-II-Bildung im Kontext von Partikelverben in den Basisdialekten Salzburgs

Focusing on phrasal verbs such as einbringen ‘to harvest’ or abbringen ‘to dissuade’, the aim of the present exploratory apparent-time study is to uncover factors affecting the subjunctive II formation in the traditional base dialects of Salzburg (Austria). Depending on whether the subjunctive II formation is synthetic or periphrastic, phrasal verbs are formed in contact position (e. g., würde/täte abbringen ‘would dissuade’) or in distance position (e. g. brächte ab ‘would dissuade’) between particle and verb stem.
 In order to examine which subjunctive II variants are used for 15 phrasal verbs in the traditional dialects of Salzburg, an indirect survey was carried out with 25 informants in six rural locations. These villages are spread across the three dialect areas (West-Central Bavarian, South-Central Bavarian, and South Bavarian) cutting through the federal state of Salzburg. Furthermore, the subjunctive II formation of the phrasal verbs is compared to that of the simple verbs (e. g., bringen ‘to bring’) corresponding to the derivational bases of the respective phrasal verbs investigated (e. g., einbringen or abbringen). In addition to linguistic and areal factors, sociolinguistic factors (age and gender) are taken into account.
 Results show that the subjunctive II formation of phrasal verbs differs significantly from that of simple verbs: compared to the corresponding simple verbs, the informants used the phrasal verbs significantly more often with periphrastic variants. It is argued that this tendency is related to specific semantic-lexical and morpho-syntactic properties of phrasal verbs. Regarding the areal distribution, there are differences between the individual locations. These differences do not correlate with the traditional dialect regions but can be traced back to the socio-demographic characteristics of the locations (number of inhabitants, transport connections, tourism etc.). Moreover, age proves to be a relevant factor: there is a statistically significant difference in both, simple verbs and phrasal verbs, with the younger informants preferring the periphrastic variants.

Number Marking of the Verb in the East Caucasian Languages

The purpose of this article is to provide a review of dedicated number marking on verbs in the East Caucasian languages. The review is based on the data drawn from grammatical descriptions. First of all, possible ways to analyze number marking on verbs are discussed: 1) as agreement, i.e. as an operation by which morphological features are copied from one word form onto another, 2) as a special category of verbal number. Second, the article discusses the ways in which number is marked on verbs and the factors by which this marking is conditioned. As it turns out, the Nakh and the Avar-Ando-Tsez branches feature number marking strategies, which are limited to a lexically defined set of verbs. Number markers in this case are localized in the verb stem. On the other hand, in many branches of the family, a different situation is also common: number marking is conditioned by the TAM-forms of the verb, i.e. by grammatical factors. Third, the diachrony of number marking is considered. The article proposes that the verb forms which are marked for number often go back to copular constructions where the predicate position is occupied by a participial form. As a result of grammaticalization of these constructions into verbal forms, the original nominal number marking on the participle develops into verbal number marking.

The Root *dheh1- ‘Put, Pose; Make, Act’ in Old Greek and Italic on the Indo-European Background

The development of root *dheh1- is considered, previously in Greek and Italic. This root, as also some other with laryngeal auslaut, is developed into a stem with auslaut *¬-k-, whose origin is disputable. Probably, it appeared as a glide, a result connection of two laryngeals (in 1 Sg. perfect), and originally characterized its “strong” forms. This glide is spread on the stem of aorist, and became a marker of active singular. In some other roots it spread on the whole verbal paradigm in all tenses. The verbal stem in Italic is formed with this *-k- – the variant with full grade in preterit, and derived present with zero grade and suffix *-io-; then a stative verb with suffix -ē-. Traces of the same morphological process are attested also in Germanic language; in Tocharian languages there are stems with -k-, what replaces an old laryngeal. The morphological and semantic archaisms of the root *dheh1- is argued

Tone in Runyankore Verb Stem Reduplication

In this paper I describe the surprisingly extensive range of choices Runyankore speakers have in “devaluative-frequentative” verb stem reduplication (“to sort of do X, to do X here and there, to do X a lot”). Analyzed as stem-compounding, both single (stem1-stem2) and multiple (stem1-stem2-stem3...) reduplication are possible of a stem such as furumuka “dash out” (furumuka-furumuka(-furumuka...)), with the possibility of left-aligned truncation (furu-furumuka, furumu-furumuka), right-aligned truncation (furumuka-muka, furumuka-rumuka) and both (furu-furumuka-muka). In addition, prefinal stems can alternatively end in “replacive [a]” (fura-furumuka, furuma-furumuka). Complementing these variants is a “mixed” system where both stems are truncated (furumu-rumuka), to which additional reduplicated stems can also be added (furu-furumu-rumuka-muka). While each reduplicated stem is free to choose its shape independently of the others (e.g. furu-furuma-furumuka, furuma-furu-furumuka etc.), the same three possible H(igh) stem-tone patterns are observed in different inflections, predictable from the input tones: /H/ on the first stem, /H/ on the last stem, /H/ on the second mora of any stem (au choix). I show that these facts require each stem to be independently derived from the same (complete) morphological and phonological input with tone assigned prior to truncation, thereby directly supporting both reduplication as compounding (Downing 2003) and morphological doubling theory (MDT) (Inkelas & Zoll 2005).

On one typological rarity: The causative in Tsugni Dargwa

The paper deals with a typologically rare and perhaps even unique case of causative marking attested in the dialect of Tsugni (Dargwa group, Nakh-Dagestanian family). Whereas all dialects and languages of the Dargwa group that have been described before express the causative by a suffix (the suffix -aq in most cases), the causative derivation in Tsugni is marked by a stress shift — from the verbal stem to the infl ectional suffix following it. In this connection, the paper also describes the stress patterns attested in the verbs in Tsugni and some other Dargwa dialects. In the final part of the paper we discuss how this unusual marking pattern could arise and what its lexical source could be.

Perbandingan Maf'ul Mutlaq Bahasa Arab dan Cognate Object Bahasa Inggris serta Analisis Sintaksis Maf'ul Mutlaq pada Juz 'Amma

This article aims to discuss the concept of absolute objects or maf'ul muthlaq in the Arabic perspective and analyze the examples in the Alquran, especially in juz Amma. Besides that, this article is also enriched with a comparative analysis between the concept of maf'ul muthlaq and the concept of cognate objects in English which are considered to have some similarities. In writing this article, the author uses descriptive qualitative approaches and types of library research. Data collected from primary and secondary sources include: articles in scientific journals relating to the study of nahwu and grammar, Arabic language books both in Indonesian as well as Arabic, seminar proceedings, scientific papers and so on. Furthermore, the data is read repeatedly, compared then analyzed to formulate conclusion. The finding shows that there are 15 maf'ul muthlaq case in juz Amma scattered in 8 surahs. 11 of them are maf'ul muthlaq as an affirmation and the remaining 4 are maf'ul muthlaq in qualitative meaning. All of them use fathah grammatical markers. The absolute object or maf'ul muthlaq and cognate object have similarities and differences. The similarities are in terms of the forming verb stem and the meaning of the absolute object itself as an explanatory type. While the differences are in the type of verb that can nominalize as an absolute object itself and its function as an affirmation and explanation of numbers.

Morphosyntactic Structures of Existential, Possessive and Locative Constructions in Amharic

This paper lays out the morphosyntactic structures of existential, locative and possessive constructions in Amharic. Amharic belongs to South Ethio-Semitic language subfamily. It is natively spoken in the Amhara region and used as the first and the second language for some urban dwellers in the country. It is a working language for the Federal Government of Ethiopia. It serves the same in Gambella, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ and Benishangul-Gumuz regional states. The Amharic existential, possessive and locative constructions are characterized by using the same existential verb stem all-‘exist’. The verb is defective in its derivation and conjugation. Unlike the prototypical verbs of the language, the existential verb uses a different verb for imperfective and past verb forms. Unlike the regular verbs of the language, the existential verb, which is perfective in form, conveys present tense. It has been observed that indefinite nominals appear as the E (Existent) in existentials and possessives, whereas definite ones appear in locatives. The morphosyntactic features of existentials and locatives are the same in every aspect except the use of definiteness of the E (Existent). The possessives differ from the two constructions in word order and morphological structure of the verb.

Accusative Licensing of Nouns in Turkish

The observation that some Turkish nouns license accusative marking of their complements has puzzled linguistics for the last three decades. The first and the most common hypothesis is that such nouns are part of light-verb compounds in their infinitive nominal form where the verbal part is dropped. In this paper, I argue that light-verb hypothesis is incorrect by providing several constructions where it fails to account for. I propose an alternative, two-part hypothesis. The first part is independent of the light-verb constructions and claims that in Turkish, the accusative case is licensed by verb stems rather than finite verbs. This is a natural corollary of a yet larger hypothesis about the structure of syntax trees for languages like Turkish which claims that the syntax trees go deeper than the word level. The leaves of such trees are morphemes or morpheme groups and the whole of infection/derivation is considered within a single morphosyntactic structure. The implication is that as far as the case-licensing is concerned, only the verb stems license accusative case. In constructions where a deverbal noun seems to be licensing accusative case, it is actually the verb stem in the noun’s derivation tree that licenses the accusative case. The second part of the hypothesis is the claim that the case-licensing nouns are actually lexicalizations involving multiple adjacent leaves in the morphosyntactic tree. The most common manifestations of this are the lexicalizations of verb stem-participle pairs through replacement with templatic surface forms borrowed from Arabic. The new proposal naturally explains the observation that accusative licensing is most common for a small set of words borrowed from Arabic. I illustrate that these words are the templatic forms of their multi-morpheme counterparts in Turkish which correspond to deverbal nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

¿Salir o salir corriendo? Una aproximación a la construcción verbo + gerundio de modo en textos originales y textos traducidos al español

Salir or salir corriendo? An Approach to the Construction of verb + gerund of manner in Original Texts and Texts Translated into Spanish. This article deals with the gerund of manner in combination with verbs of motion. The starting point of this study is the theoretical framework proposed by cognitive semantics which maintains that a motion event can be divided into several components: MOTION, PATH, FIGURE and GROUND. With respect to the predominant lexicalization patterns, two types of languages are distinguished: satellite -framed languages (which encode the PATH by means of a “satellite”) and verb -framed languages (which express the PATH using the verb stem). In addition, it has been observed that speakers of the second group pay less attention to the expression of MANNER, a secondary component, and that there are significant restrictions affecting this component in “boundary -crossing” events. To explore the use of the gerund in combination with verbs of motion, the InterCorp and Araneum Hispanicum Maius corpora, hosted by the Institute of the Czech National Corpus, were used. The results indicate that the gerund of manner is most often used in combination with salir, ir, venir, and llegar, and the most common forms are cor‑ riendo, caminando, andando, and volando. They also show that the combinations with corriendo and volando are more frequent in the subcorpus of texts translated into Spanish than in the subcorpus of original texts. The author concludes that the dynamics of the event is important and that is why the MANNER information is kept in the translations.

Aspects of the Ventive-Energic in Official Aramaic

Abstract The use of a linking element -n- between the verb stem of the imper- fective and an object pronoun suffix is a well-known feature of Western Aramaic languages and dialects. This linking element is traditionally thought to be formally related to the so-called energic suffixes in West Semitic, which in turn are assumed to be cognate with the ven- tive morpheme in Akkadian. It is argued that the formal identification of the energic with the ventive can explain the morphophonological distribution of the linking element -n- in Biblical Aramaic and that the functional identification of the energic with the ventive can explain the use of -n without an object pronoun suffix in the A$$hiqar proverbs as a reflexive-benefactive marker.1

أسماء السیف فی العربیَّة: دراسة لغویَّة

الملخص عنوان البحث (( أسماء السيف في العربية: دراسة لغوية) يهدف إلى دراسة أسماء السيف التي ذکرها اللغويون وتجاوز عددها (70) اسما، والکشف عن الظواهر اللغوية التي تمثلت في الظواهر الصوتية، مثل: القلب المکاني، والإبدال، والمخالفة الصوتية. وظواهر صرفية، مثل: الأوزان الصرفية التي کان أغلب اشتقاقها من الثلاثي الصحيح والمعتل، ثم أوزان الرباعي من الصحيح السالم، والمعرب. کما اشتملت الدراسة على ظواهر دلالية تتمثل في الدلالات المتقاربة، والدلالات المتقابلة، والتضاد، والمشترک اللفظي، ومظاهر التطور الدلالي کتخصيص الدلالة، وتعميمها، وتغيير الدلالة لعلاقة المشابهة، ولغير المشابهة؛ مما يفسر ظاهرة تعدد الأسماء للشيء الواحد التي تعد رافدا مهما في إثراء العربية. Abstract This study (titled Names for ‘Sword’ in Arabic: A Linguistic Study) aims to explore the names of the sword linguists mentioned, exceeding (70) names, and to explore the linguistic aspects that were represented in phonetic representations, such as: metathesis, substitution, and assimilation; morphological phenomena, such as: morphological analogy, most of which were derived from the three-letter-stem verb, with or without vowels and morphological analogy of nominative and accusative cases from the four-letter- stem verb. The study also included semantic representations displayed in hyponyms, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, and manifestations of semantic development such as specific connotation, general connotation, and changing connotation for similarity and non-similarity relationships. All of these phonemic, morphological and semantic aspects account for the phenomenon of multiple names for the same thing, which is an important source enriching the Arabic Language.

CARP Affix Ordering: Problematic in Lubukusu

Hyman and Mchombo (1992), Babye (1985), (Myers 1987), (Rice 2000), and Hyman (2002 & 2003) have shown that there is affix ordering in Proto-Bantu languages that obeys the 'CARP' (Causative-Applicative-Reciprocal-Passive template). Drawing data from Lubukusu, a Bantu language, the current study analyzes affix ordering of class-changing morphemes, arguing against the templatic morphology that most researchers have shown to be dominant in Bantu languages. The current study uses Bybee’s (1985) principle of iconicity (principle of relevance), where it is proposed that affixes closer to the verb stem are more 'relevant' to the verb than to the rest of the sentence and those affixes further away are less relevant. Based on Baybee’s relevance principle, the study argues that there are various affix ordering orders in Lubukusu, which are semantically motivated. The data that are used in the analyses are self-generated and verified by three native Lubukusu speakers who are competent in the language. Findings show that as much as Lubukusu obeys the templatic morphology, the same is violated in various morpho-semantic contexts. The study recommends more studies on affix ordering in the Lubukusu language based on other existing frameworks that have been tested on languages rather than those from the proto Bantu family.

Verb Inflection in Tenango Otomi and the Typology of Grammatical Tone

This paper describes two different grammatical tone constructions that occur in the verb morphology of Tenango Otomi (Central Mexico; Oto-Pamean, Oto-Manguean), which consist in tone alternations on the verb stem that are conditioned by aspect, transitivity, inflectional class, and prosody; furthermore, the specific alternation patterns a verb undergoes are lexically stipulated. These two constructions combine to form 19 different tone classes (i.e., groups of verbs that follow similar tone alternation patterns). I describe these constructions in terms of two of the more recent typologies of grammatical tone phenomena (Palancar 2016; Rolle 2018), and I discuss how the analysis of verb inflection in Tenango Otomi contributes to such typologies. Furthermore, I propose two different accounts for the apparent irregularities in the inflection system presented, one based on (morpho)phonological rules and another one based on a word-and-paradigm model.

Deriving the Metrical Head in Standard Korean

Standard Korean is known to have vowel length contrasts. It has, however, been proposed that the Korean long vowel is phonetic, whereby a long vowel reflects an elongation of vowel duration under stress (Ko 2002, 2013). This paper is a follow-up on this proposal to analyze the long vowel as a metrical head, whose derivation is shown in the framework of Halle and Idsardi (1995). The algorithm for deriving the metrical head involves formal proposals for the Projection, Edge Marking, and Head Location parameters for designating the most prominent syllable in the word. The metrical head is phonetically rendered prominent with the elongation of the vowel, which is audible in the initial syllable but to a lesser degree in the second (Ko 2013). The proposed algorithm provides a principled explanation for the so-called verb stem vowel shortening phenomenon by applying the cross-linguistically attested accent clash resolution.

Антропонимия в эвенкийском языке и культурных традициях эвенков

The research aims to determine specific traditions of anthroponymy in the Evenki’s language and culture. The work is novel in that it is the first to examine in detail methods of word formation in the Evenki’s anthroponymicon on the basis of the Evenki language grammar in accordance with the ethnic group’s ethnographic traditions. As a result, it was found that the name was an important worldview and individual symbol in the Evenki’s cultural traditions that most accurately characterised a person and was usually represented by a new word formed in accordance with agglutinative nature of the Evenki language, that is by adding suffixes to the nominal or verbal stem of a word.

The ‘Other’ gumēzišn. About the Final ‘Merger’ of Limited Time with Eternity

The Middle Persian (MP) verb gumēxtan, gumēz- [gwmyhtn', gymyc-], despite its Indo-Iranian and Indo-European origins, does not offer attestations in Avestan and Old Persian. This is a very peculiar fact, because in particular a nominal derivative of this verbal stem, gumēzišn [gwmyck'], became one of the most sensible technical terms adopted in the framework of the Mazdean cosmology and theology. We can briefly recall that the gumēzišn concerns the ‘state of mixture’, the mélange produced by the irruption of Ahreman in the primordial good creation of Ohrmazd, when he pierced the heavens and entered the world.

THE MORPHOSYNTACTIC FEATURES AND TENSE ASPECT MARKING IN SAMOR OF BARINGO COUNTY, KENYA. A MORPHO- PHONOSYNTACTIC STUDY

Purpose: The present study focuses on the role of morphosyntactic features in tense marking among the Samor people residing in Baringo County. The desire to study Samor is because this sub- dialect of Tugen has not been studied before. Dialects vary in the way in which TA is marked. This assertion is based on previous research which classified languages and dialects as follows: agglutinating, polysynthetic, fusional and isolating. Since human languages display distinct differences in tense marking, the current study sought to investigate how Samor speakers mark tense. The objective of the study is to examine the various morphosyntactic that mark tense. To achieve the objective of this study, one hundred Samor utterances were used to analyze tense marking. The research targeted Samor speakers from Baringo County.
 Methodology: Data in form of speeches during diverse ceremonies were collected using tape recordings, interviews and natural observation. The researcher sourced 50% of speeches from tape recordings, 30% from the interviews and 20% from naturalistic observations. The study is anticipated to be a reference point in tense marking in Samor a sub- dialect that has not been studied. The research focused on tense which falls under the verb phrase, this means the other parts of speech were not investigated. The design in this study was cross- sectional case study of a target phenomena i.e. Samor. To investigate how tense is marked, Chomsky’s Feature Checking Theory (FCT) and Hardley’s Grounded Theory (GT) were used as conceptual frameworks. FCT identifies grammatical features in an utterance and checks each feature to ensure grammaticality. On the other hand, GT a theory in qualitative research was responsible for assigning chaotic data labels and categories. The data in this research was analyzed using GT. GT is a methodological framework in analyzing text.
 Findings: The theory proposes three steps used to analyze data. These steps are open, axial and selective coding. The findings in this research show the unique tense marking strategies used in Samor. The paper found out that Samor is a verb initial sub- dialect and morpho- syntactic features such as tense and aspect are marked in the verbal stem by attaching affixes.
 Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The sub- dialect is agglutinating in nature since affixes expressing various features affix to the root verb. These affixes as seen in figure 1 are /ka-, ko-, ki-/ that express immediate past, recent past and distant past accordingly.