Steering Mirror Research Articles

Preliminary Control-Oriented Modeling of the ITER Steering Mirror Assembly and Local Control System in the Electron Cyclotron Heating & Current Drive Actuator

Preliminary Control-Oriented Modeling of the ITER Steering Mirror Assembly and Local Control System in the Electron Cyclotron Heating & Current Drive Actuator

MEMS fast steering mirror with a large optical aperture and high surface quality for free-space optical communication

This work presents a MEMS fast steering mirror fabricated by an 8-inch AlScN platform, with a large optical aperture of up to 10 mm and high surface quality (RMS < 20 nm, PV < 120 nm), intended for free-space optical communication. The device comprises a high reflective mirror plate, a pillar and four cantilever beams with AlScN thin films. This device is prepared by a wafer-level eutectic bonding process. A reinforcement structure is proposed to increase the resonant frequency and the resistance to deformation. The mechanical performance, including resonant frequency, step response, linearity, and long-term stability are characterized. The maximum tilting angle is 1.38 mrad at 68 V, the settling time is improved from 400 ms in the open-loop control mode to 0.5 ms with the double step algorithm. The relationship of the resonant frequency, surface figure, and the depth of reinforced ribs is studied through characterizing devices with different depths of reinforced ribs. The bonding quality and the mutual melting states of bonding layers interface are investigated.

A new magnetic negative stiffness mechanism: A case study of Fast Steering Mirror for quasi-zero stiffness vibration isolation

Quasi-Zero Stiffness (QZS) is essential for low-frequency passive vibration isolation, with the negative stiffness mechanism (NSM) being pivotal for achieving QZS. Mechanical spring-based NSMs often face issues like contact friction, parasitic high-frequency modes, and stiffness nonlinearity. This paper presents a new magnetic NSM designed to overcome these challenges effectively. The mechanism is applied to a Fast Steering Mirror (FSM) as a case study, enhancing its vibration isolation performance. Initially, a torque model for the magnetic NSM is established, exploring the impact of various structural dimensions on torque and nonlinear issues. The magnetic NSM features adjustable negative stiffness and a large, adjustable linear working range. Experiments were designed to validate the principle of the magnetic NSM and its effect on the QZS FSM’s vibration isolation performance. The experimental results confirm the accuracy of the magnetic NSM principle. The QZS FSM stiffness is significantly reduced to quasi-zero stiffness, resulting in a decrease of the resonance peak from 20.1 to −12.8 dB and lowering the minimum suppressible vibration frequency from 54.63 to 3.44 Hz, thereby enhancing the vibration isolation performance of the QZS FSM.

Control of a Micro-Electro-Mechanical System Fast Steering Mirror with an Input Shaping Algorithm

Fast steering mirrors (FSMs) designed by the micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) technology are significantly smaller in volume and mass, offering distinct advantages. To improve their performance in the open-loop control mode, this study introduces a control algorithm and evaluates its performance on an electromagnetic-driven MEMS-FSM. The algorithm employs a method to shape the input signal by fitting the system’s transfer function and modifying the step response. This shaped signal is then applied to the system to minimize overshoot, reduce settling time, and improve working bandwidth, thereby enabling faster angular adjustments and improving the stability of the FSM. The experimental results demonstrate an 85.65% reduction in overshoot and a decrease in settling time from 84 ms to 0.4 ms. Consequently, the working bandwidth of the FSM system increases to 2500 Hz, demonstrating the effectiveness of the algorithm in enhancing MEMS-FSM’s performance.

High-precision and large-range deflection of light beams with fast steering mirrors.

Fast steering mirrors (FSMs) offer a potential alternative for large-range deflection of light beams. However, for a large-stroke FSM, its pointing precision is unacceptably deteriorated due to the actuator non-uniformity, mechanical axis coupling, and the coupling of line-of-sight (LOS) kinematics. This Letter proposes a comprehensive beam-pointing algorithm by decoupling the LOS kinematic model and establishing a two-dimensional correction mapping to compensate for the non-uniformity and mechanical coupling. Moreover, the incident angle is calibrated by a non-contact method to construct the LOS kinematic model accurately. The experimental results proved that the beam-pointing accuracy can achieve a sub-milliradian level within the square field of regard (FOR) of ±25° horizontally and ±14° vertically. A pointing error of 0.87 mrad can be guaranteed within the horizontal range of -30° to 36° and the vertical range of ±24°. Therefore, the proposed method can achieve high-precision beam pointing in a large FOR and contributes to the miniaturization of optical systems.

Decreasing the non-linearity of hybrid reluctance actuators by air gap design

This paper presents an air gap design approach to improve the linearity of rotational Hybrid Reluctance Actuators (HRAs) used in fast steering mirrors. The approach involves modeling a one-degree-of-freedom HRA with a magnetic equivalent circuit to identify and analyze sources of non-linearities. On the basis of the verified model, solutions for an improved linear system behavior are analytically searched. Two linearized HRA designs are proposed, one with linear cross-section dependency and the other with hyperbolic air gap length dependency. Finite element method simulations are employed to evaluate the performance with respect to the linearity and the motor constant of these designs, showing factor 50 improved system linearity.

Development of a large stroke 3-DOF piezoelectric steering mirror for optical system

The steering mirrors and the focusing mechanisms are the key components of the optical system. Traditional steering mirrors driven by voice coil actuator or piezoelectric stack actuator have the disadvantages of short stroke, self-locking difficulty and poor structural reliability. These defects limit the performance of the steering mirrors and make it difficult to be compatible with the focusing mechanism. As a result, additional focusing devices are required in the optical system, which significantly increases the complexity of the system. To simplify the optical system, a large stroke three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) piezoelectric steering mirror (PSM) which can realize both light path adjustment and focus adjustment is proposed in this study. Two rotational degrees of freedom of the PSM are used to adjust the light path, and a translational degree of freedom is used to adjust the focus. The screwed-typed piezoelectric actuators (STPAs) are designed to drive the PSM by exciting the travelling wave. The feasibility of the operating principle and reliability of the proposed PSM have been verified by finite element simulation. A prototype of the PSM is fabricated and tested. The experimental results show that the PSM achieves rotational degrees of freedom around the x-axis, y-axis and translational degree of freedom along the z-axis with maximum ranges of ±0.17 rad, ±0.17 rad, and ±10 mm, respectively, meeting the application requirements of the optical systems. The resolutions of the two rotary motions of the PSM are 28 μrad, and 21 μrad, respectively, and that of the translational motion is 0.5 μm. Finally, the position adjustment and focusing operations of the image are demonstrated to validate the potential application of PSM in optical systems.

Refraction displacement pulse sequence combination based on a fast steering mirror stabilization system

In this paper, a fast steering mirror (FSM) stabilization system is proposed for a refraction displacement pulse sequence beam-combining (PSBC) technique. The FSM system can effectively suppress pointing jitter in the PSBC and achieve high beam-quality laser output. A proof-of-principle experiment on the PSBC with FSM is performed with three ∼100W pulsed beams. The experimental results indicate that a combined output power of 302.5 W is achieved, corresponding to a high combining efficiency of 98.7%. Meanwhile, excellent pointing stability with root mean square pointing jitter = 4.2 µrad is confirmed with a beam quality β of 2.

Criteria for selection of point-ahead angle compensation strategy in intersatellite laser ranging interferometry of TianQin based on research of tilt-to-length coupling noise

TianQin is expected to deploy three spacecraft in Earth orbit at the altitude of about 1 × 108 m to form an equilateral triangular constellation with arm lengths of about 1.7 × 108 m. It is aimed at detecting gravitational waves in the frequency range from 0.1 mHz to 1 Hz by means of high sensitive laser ranging interferometry with pathlength measurement noise below 1 pm/Hz1/2. The long-range propagation of beam in the intersatellite laser ranging interferometry between the three spacecraft results in a non-negligible time delay of 0.58 s. Therefore, there is an angular difference between the optimal outgoing and incoming laser beam of laser ranging interferometry on each spacecraft, which is denoted as the point-ahead angle. Due to the relative motion between the three spacecraft, the point-ahead angle of TianQin constellation is approximately 22.96 μrad with a dynamic variation range of ±24.71 nrad. Point-ahead-angle mechanism is a fine steering mirror used for point-ahead angle compensation to diminish the beam pointing error, thus to maintain the intersatellite laser link as well as to diminish the tilt-to-length coupling noise, which are vital to the gravitational wave detection. Both the static and dynamic point-ahead angle compensation strategies can be used in TianQin and the selection of the two is based on minimizing the total point-ahead-angle-related tilt-to-length coupling noise. In this paper, a criteria for selection of the two strategies are proposed by establishing a model of point-ahead-angle-related tilt-to-length coupling noise as well as a corresponding evaluation function for calculation and comparison. The results indicate that the dynamic compensation strategy is the optimal choice only when the first-order tilt-to-length coupling coefficient of point-ahead-angle mechanism is less than 6.4 × 10−9 m/rad, otherwise the static compensation strategy should be used. The proposed criteria, as well as the model and the requirement for point-ahead-angle mechanism, can serve as a common theoretical basis in laser ranging interferometry applications.

Piezoelectric-based large-angle stroke fast steering mirror with high ratio of output range to resolution and self-sensing capability.

In space optical applications, the piezoelectric-actuated fast steering mirror (FSM) is one of the pivotal components for high-precision beam capturing and trajectory tracking. The FSM is restrained in small-angle scanning applications due to the short actuation stroke of the incorporated piezoelectric materials. This study introduces a dual-axis sub-radian stroke FSM with a high ratio of output range to resolution and self-sensing capability, based on cascading structures for displacement amplification and flexible parts for feedback. Theoretical analyses and finite element analysis (FEA) are applied to elucidate the driving and deformation mechanisms of the proposed FSM structure. To ensure the performance of the proposed FSM, the double-loop control strategies are implemented independently for rotation around the two orthogonal axes. Experimental results reveal that both axes can rotate 148.67 mrad under the closed-loop control, with the ratio of output range to resolution larger than 3.90 × 104, superior to existing FSMs. We further demonstrate with designed experiments of tracking complex trajectories that the relative tracking accuracy error remains lower than 0.02%.

Design and analysis of flexible tilt mirror driven by piezoelectric thin sheet actuators

Optical tilt mirrors (OTM) enable the mirrors to achieve high precision posture adjustment, playing a significant role in various optical system applications in the fields such as active optics, adaptive optics, satellite communications and biomedicines. However, the rapid development of modern technologies has brought new challenges to OTM in terms of their dimension, operating space and dynamic performance. Herein, a novel biaxial optical flexible tilt mirror (OFTM) driven by four simple bonded-type thin sheet piezoelectric actuators was proposed, where the OFTM was designed based on the flexible bending motions of composite piezoelectric beams. Particularly, OFTM is mainly composed of PZT sheet and stainless steel substrate, and shows a dimension of 42 mm × 42 mm × 0.2 mm. A theoretical model of OFTM was established to accurately describe the relationship between input electric field and output pose based on elastic beam theory, where the relationship was verified by both finite element analysis and experimental results. Finally, an OFTM prototype was fabricated and presented good performance on motion behaviors. Compared with traditional fast steering mirror (FSM) and MEMS mirror, the developed OFTM shows low cost, small size and simple manufacturing process, which greatly extends the applications of OFTTM in emerging fields.

Improved Adaptive Feedforward Controller Based on Internal Model Principle with Disturbance Observer for Laser-Beam Steering Systems

This study presents an effective control algorithm to improve the robustness of fast steering mirror (FSM)-based laser-beam steering systems against dynamic disturbances, such as repetitive disturbances resulting from operating conditions. A stable control system must be able to maintain the required high-precision control, even when dynamic disturbances affect the FSM system. In this study, an improved control method is proposed using an internal model principle (IMP)-based nonlinear controller with a disturbance observer (DOB) for the FSM system. This IMP-based controller with DOB can attenuate the residual control-error signal under dynamic disturbance conditions.

Electrical aging of a piezoelectric MEMS fast steering mirror and its impact on reliability

Reliability is a critical characteristic of aerospace-grade components, particularly fast steering mirror (FSM), which is one of the key devices in Free-Space laser communication terminals. The previous long-term work of FSM exposes noteworthy reliability issues about degradation of this device. This paper first demonstrates the electrical aging effect that occurs in piezoelectric-driven micro electro mechanical system (MEMS) FSM during prolonged operation. This is a significant reliability issue as it causes the decay of mechanical angle of MEMS FSM, ultimately resulting in functional failure. In order to study the electrical aging effect, firstly, a mechanical angle monitoring system is developed for the rapid and accurate identification of electrical aging failure. Secondly, we performed failure analysis by using scanning electron microscope - focused ion beam (FIB - SEM) and conducted thermal analysis experiments to confirm heat accumulation within the MEMS FSM actuator, where the electrical aging effect takes place. Thirdly, by setting up a finite element simulations (FEM) model of the step region in the actuator, the electrical aging effect resulting from heat accumulation caused by high current density under a significant electric field at the lower step is confirmed. Finally, the critical reliability issue of electrical aging, which affects the lifetime of piezoelectric-driven MEMS FSM, is improved by adjusting the layout to eliminate large electric field intensity in local region.

Image stabilization of airborne inertial stabilization platform using fast steering mirror

Image stabilization of airborne inertial stabilization platform using fast steering mirror

A Dual-FSM GI LiDAR Imaging Control Method Based on Two-Dimensional Flexible Turntable Composite Axis Tracking

In this study, a tracking and pointing control system with a dual-FSM (fast steering mirror) two-dimensional flexible turntable composite axis is proposed. It is applied to the target-tracking accuracy control in a GI LiDAR (ghost imaging LiDAR) system. Ghost imaging is a multi-measurement imaging method; the dual-FSM GI LiDAR tracking and pointing imaging control system proposed in this study mainly solves the problems of the high-resolution remote sensing imaging of high-speed moving targets and various nonlinear disturbances when this technology is transformed into practical applications. Addressing the detrimental effects of nonlinear disturbances originating from internal flexible mechanisms and assorted external environmental factors on motion control’s velocity, stability, and tracking accuracy, a nonlinear active disturbance rejection control (NLADRC) method based on artificial neural networks is advanced. Additionally, to overcome the limitations imposed by receiving aperture constraints in GI LiDAR systems, a novel optical path design for the dual-FSM GI LiDAR tracking and imaging system is put forth. The implementation of the described methodologies culminated in the development of a dual-FSM GI LiDAR tracking and imaging system, which, upon thorough experimental validation, demonstrated significant improvements. Notably, it achieved an improvement in the coarse tracking accuracy from 193.29 μrad (3σ) to 87.21 μrad (3σ) and enhanced the tracking accuracy from 10.1 μrad (σ) to 1.5 μrad (σ) under specified operational parameters. Furthermore, the method notably diminished the overshoot during the target capture process from 28.85% to 12.8%, concurrently facilitating clear recognition of the target contour. This research contributes significantly to the advancement of GI LiDAR technology for practical application, showcasing the potential of the proposed control and design strategies in enhancing system performance in the face of complex disturbances.

Design and Characterization of Four-Degree-of-Freedom Fast Steering Mirror for Laser Compensation System

Design and Characterization of Four-Degree-of-Freedom Fast Steering Mirror for Laser Compensation System

Steering Mirror System with Closed-Loop Feedback for Free-Space Optical Communication Terminals

Precision beam pointing plays a critical role in free-space optical communications terminals in uplink, downlink and inter-satellite link scenarios. Among the various methods of beam steering, the use of fast steering mirrors (FSM) is widely adopted, with many commercial solutions employing diverse technologies, particularly focusing on small, high-bandwidth mirrors. This paper introduces a method using lightweight, commercial off-the-shelf components to construct a custom closed-loop steering mirror platform, suitable for mirror apertures exceeding 100 mm. The approach involves integrating optical encoders into two off-the-shelf open-loop actuators. These encoders read the signal reflected on purposefully diamond-machined knurled screw knobs, providing maximum contrast between light and dark lines. The resulting steering mirror has the potential to complement or replace FSM in applications requiring a larger stroke, at the expense of motion speed. In the presented setup, the mirror tilt resolution achieved based on the encoder closed-loop signal feedback is 45 μrad, with a mean slew rate of 1.5 mrad/s. Importantly, the steering assembly is self-locking, requiring no power to maintain a steady pointing angle. Using the mirror to actively correct for a constantly moving incoming beam, a 5-fold increase in concentration of the beam spot on the center of the detector was obtained compared to a fixed position mirror, demonstrating the mirrors ability to correct for satellite platform jitter and drift.

Closed-Loop Optical Tracking of a Micro-Conveyor over a Smart Surface

In this work, a closed loop control system is developed to optically localize and track micro-robots with high precision. These micro-robots (i.e., micro-conveyors) are in motion simultaneously across a smart surface.The developed method’s primary objectives are to optimize their trajectories, avoid collisions between them, and control their position with micrometric resolution. This article presents and characterizes the tracking of a single micro-conveyor, and the method works similarly when multiple micro-robots move over the surface. Our tracking method starts with a scanning phase, where a 2D steering mirror, placed above the smart surface, reflects a laser beam toward the conveying surface seeking for the target. Localization occurs when this light beam reaches the micro-conveyor. By adding a retro-reflective element, that reflects the light in the same direction of the the incident light, onto the surface of the micro-conveyor, the light will be reflected towards a photodetector. Depending on the feedback from the photodetector, the steering mirror rotates to track the trajectory of the micro-conveyor. The tip-tilt angular values of the steering mirror allows the micro-conveyor position to be obtained via calibrated localization system. The aim of this work is to regulate the micro-conveyor, within a closed-loop control system, to reduce the positional error between the actual and desired position. The actual position value is measured in real-time application using our developed optical sensor. Results for tracking in the x-and y-axis have validated the proposed method, with an average tracking error less than 30 µm within a range 150 mm × 150 mm.

Residual Patterns in GRACE Follow-On Laser Ranging Interferometry Post-Fit Range Rate Residuals

The novel laser ranging interferometer (LRI) on GRACE Follow-On (GRACE-FO) provides range and range rate measurements for more than 4 years now. Since the launch of the GRACE-FO mission there were few investigations about this measurement system on the level of gravity field recovery and analysis of post-fit residuals. We applied techniques such as along-orbit-analysis or time-argument of latitude diagrams (TAL) to analyse the post-fit range rate residuals as well as the post-fit range acceleration residuals to identify unknown characteristics and systematic effects. The effects are the range rate effect, the panel effect, the Carrier-To-Noise Ratio (CNR) effect and the polar effect. The range rate effect occurs, when the range rate observation ρ̇ of the LRI is around 0 m/s. In the TAL diagram the effect appears as a mesh pattern. The panel effect shows patterns of increased residuals when a specific satellite panel starts or stops being illuminated by the Sun. Increased residuals appear when the laser beam is aligned with the Sun. A CNR drop as well as a fluctuation of the yaw and pitch pointing angles obtained from the LRI steering mirrors is observable. Additionally, when the satellites flying into or out of the Earth shadow this effect coincides with the shadow transition effect. Another effect is the CNR effect which appears as an elliptic shape in the TAL diagram. This pattern occurs when the CNR values drop below the LRI requirements of 70 dB-Hz. All these effects have not been detected in the residuals of the GRACE-FO K-band ranging system (KBR) and therefore further investigation and studies will improve the understanding and applications of LRI technology.

Decoupling modeling design and high-precision position control of fast steering mirror

For a two-axis fast steering mirror (FSM) based on the flexible chain structure support and voice coil motor drive, the two axes are strongly coupled. This strong coupling may decrease the system positioning accuracy. In this study, the electric kinematics model associated with the voice coil motor and the motion and frequency equations associated with the flexible chain structure were analysed. A comprehensive system model was established considering shaft coupling, a digital controller with compensation coupling was designed, and the method of active compensation was used for decoupling. The experimental results showed that compared with the traditional non-decoupling control algorithm, the decoupling control method decreased the coupling degree from 7% to 0.8% and reduced the positioning accuracy error from 1.5% to 0.3%.