Steel Ruler Research Articles

The invention relates to a new type of curved hook gauge for measuring elevator related dimensions

In order to realize a measuring tool that can be easily used in elevator inspection and testing, this paper integrates several types of existing plug gauge (gap gauge and vernier gauge), steel ruler and some tape measure functions, and carries out technical transformation of existing tools through parameter calculation and mechanical optimization design to achieve a tool. It not only solves the direct measurement of the data related to the comb and comb plate of the escalator, but also can be used in the escalator and elevator inspection and detection of other items.

Phase-based motion estimation and SVR smooth for target-free 3D deformation measurement using stereophotogrammetry

Non-contact measurement methods based on computer vision have shown great potential for measuring structural surface displacement and strain due to their low cost and high efficiency. However, the traditional computer vision technology based on digital image correlation (DIC) is limited by its dependence on natural texture features of the surface and its susceptibility to environmental conditions, making it challenging to obtain effective and robust measurements of surface deformation. Additionally, these methods typically only focus on the structural response in the image plane, which makes it difficult to perform a comprehensive health assessment of complex structural components with asymmetry. Therefore, a time-domain visual measurement technique based on image phase information is proposed for measuring three-dimensional (3D) deformation of structures using stereophotogrammetry. The method involves extracting image phase information using 2D Gabor filters and applying it to dense optical flow estimation based on polynomial approximation and semi-global block matching (SGBM) for obtaining robust 3D displacement measurements. The support vector regression (SVR) is then used to perform hyperplane fitting of the original displacements for improving the smoothness of the 3D displacements. Finally, an intuitive strain conversion method is introduced to convert the 3D displacements into 3D strains. The performance of the proposed technique has been validated through numerical simulation experiments based on a physics-based graphics model (PBGM) in a synthetic environment. The robustness of the proposed method has been further proved through free attenuation vibration experiments on a steel ruler. The initial evaluation of the expected performance of the measurement plan has been enabled by performing a 1:1 reduction of the field measurement process in a synthetic environment. The results indicate that the proposed method is a promising method for accurately and reliably measuring structural deformation in both synthetic and real-world environments, especially for complex structural components with asymmetry.

Uncertainty Evaluation in calibration of Engineer’s Steel Rulers and Measuring Tapes; GUM and Monte Carlo Methods

Engineer’s steel rulers and measuring tapes are considered versatile dimensional measuring tools for many industrial applications. Calibrations of these tools are carried out by comparing their scales with reference length standards. The reference standards can be geodetic baselines provided by a laser interferometer system or linear encoder that integrated in well-designed guideway. This work aims to study not only the calibration process for steel rulers and measuring tapes but also the affecting parameters on this process and the assessment of associated uncertainty by different evaluation methods. In this paper, a 1000 mm engineer’s steel ruler and 5000 mm measuring tape are calibrated. A calibration system of precise guideway provided by linear encoder of 1 µm resolution are used. Associated uncertainties have been estimated based on GUM and Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) methods. The parameters that may affect the calibration processes are carefully studied through the uncertainty evaluation. Expanded uncertainties of about 20 µm and 80 µm for calibration of 1000 mm engineer’s steel ruler and 5000 mm measuring tape respectively are achieved.

Study of the Instantaneous Water Level Measurement Method on Unsteady Flow Based on Single Camera and Fixed Scale Compensation in the Tunnel Model

The shape of instantaneous water surface profiles for the unsteady flow in the tunnel model can be determined by measuring the instantaneous water levels at multiple points synchronously. However, the measurement accuracy of the ultrasonic method is affected greatly because of the complex state of the water surface when water level changes rapidly. Using an optical method, multicamera synchronous measurement is difficult to control, and the cost is high. For single camera measurement, the reading of the steel ruler in the image cannot be clearly seen when the distance between the measuring point and single camera is far. When the distance is short, all steel rulers cannot be captured at the same time. Hence, in this paper, a single camera and fixed scale compensation method for instantaneous water level observation in unsteady flow is proposed. A series of fixed scales is placed with the same height and width near the water surface to be measured. In order to capture dynamic images of all fixed scales with a clear water surface, a single camera is set at a far position to continuously record the water level change process within the model range. According to the height of the fixed scale, the image accuracy is compensated and the effect of the wide-angle image distortion is automatically avoided. The water level elevation is obtained according to the relationship between the fixed scale and the water surface. In this paper, the unsteady flow model measuring test is applied to the Southern Main Tunnel and the Water Distribution Pool of the Huangchigou Water Diversion Project. The accuracy of this method in measuring the dynamic water level is 1–2 mm, which meets the accuracy requirement and greatly reduces the observation cost of the model test. The proposed method may also be suitable for measuring the instantaneous water level of the unsteady flow in other similar hydraulic model tests.

Uncertainty Evaluation in calibration of Engineer’s Steel Rulers and Measuring Tapes; GUM and Monte Carlo Methods

Engineer’s steel rulers and measuring tapes are considered versatile dimensional measuring tools for many industrial applications. Calibrations of these tools are carried out by comparing their scales with reference length standards. The reference standards can be geodetic baselines provided by a laser interferometer system or linear encoder that integrated in well-designed guideway. This work aims to study not only the calibration process for steel rulers and measuring tapes but also the affecting parameters on this process and the assessment of associated uncertainty by different evaluation methods. In this paper, a 1000 mm engineer’s steel ruler and 5000 mm measuring tape are calibrated. A calibration system of precise guideway provided by linear encoder of 1 µm resolution are used. Associated uncertainties have been estimated based on GUM and Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) methods. The parameters that may affect the calibration processes are carefully studied through the uncertainty evaluation. Expanded uncertainties of about 20 µm and 80 µm for calibration of 1000 mm engineer’s steel ruler and 5000 mm measuring tape respectively are achieved. This study presents two issues. (1) it is first documented work in the study of uncertainty assessment and related parameters in this calibration type. (2) application of Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method in uncertainty evaluation in calibration of these tools.

Estimating the elastic modulus and bending stiffness of steel ruler with crack using three-point bending test

Cracks are the early signs of distress in structures and must be diagnosed accurately. They reduce the structural stiffness, strength, and may adversely affect the behavior of the structure. This study aims to estimate the elastic modulus and the bending stiffness of a steel ruler with varying crack lengths. A low cost and simple three-point bending test was used for the measurements. A pristine ruler and rulers with three different crack lengths were subjected to loads of up to 6 kg (roughly 13 lbs) and the displacement close to the load location was measured. The load and displacement at the center of the specimen, for loading and unloading, were measured at equal load steps. The effect of a crack on the elastic modulus and the bending stiffness was compared with that of the pristine ruler. Permanent deformation was observed on the 10 mm and 15 mm crack ruler. The presence of crack reduced the elastic modulus of the ruler by 14% and the bending stiffness by 26.5%. The structural load-bearing capacity depends on the presence of cracks. Anticipating the extent of reduction in elastic modulus and bending stiffness aids designers in minimizing the need for repeated design revisions. This investigation supports both structural designers in designing structures such as airplanes and bridges, as well as repair technologists in upgrading existing structures.

Patient's effective dose and performance assessment of computed radiography systems

Computed tomography is widely used for planar imaging. Previous studies showed that CR systems involve higher patient radiation doses compared to digital systems. Therefore, assessing the patient's dose and CR system performance is necessary to ensure that patients received minimal dose with the highest possible image quality. The study was performed at three medical diagnostic centers in Sudan: Medical Corps Hospital (MCH), Advance Diagnostic Center (ADC), and Advance Medical Center (AMC).The following tools were used in this study: Tape measure, Adhesive tape, 1.5 mm copper filtration (>10 × 10 cm), TO 20 threshold contrast test object, Resolution test object (e.g., Huttner 18), MI geometry test object or lead ruler, Contact mish, Piranha (semiconductor detector), Small lead or copper block (∼5 × 5 cm), and Steel ruler, to do a different type of tests (Dark Noise, Erasure cycle efficiency, Sensitivity Index calibration, Sensitivity Index consistency, Uniformity, Scaling errors, Blurring, Limiting spatial Resolution, Threshold, and Laser beam Function. Entrance surface air kerma (ESAK (mGy) was calculated from patient exposure parameters using DosCal software for three imaging modalities. A total of 199 patients were examined (112 chest X rays, 77 lumbar spine). The mean and standard deviation (sd) for patients ESAK (mGy) were 2.56 ± 0.1 mGy and 1.6 mGy for the Anteroposterior (AP) and lateral projections for the lumbar spine, respectively. The mean and sd for the patient's chest doses were 0.1 ± 0.01 for the chest X-ray procedures. The three medical diagnostic centers' CR system performance was evaluated and found that all of the three centers have good CR system functions. All the centers satisfy all the criteria of acceptable visual tests. CR's image quality and sensitivity were evaluated, and the CR image is good because it has good contrast and resolution. All the CR system available in the medical centers and upgraded from old X-ray systems to new systems, has been found to work well. The patient's doses were comparable for the chest X-ray procedures, while patients' doses from the lumbar spine showed variation up to 2 folds due to the variation in patients' weight and X-ray machine setting. Patients dose optimization is recommended to ensure the patients received a minimal dose while obtaining the diagnostic findings.

Low-Cost Prototype Multidiameter Measurement for Vertical Cylinder Tank

The vertical cylinder tank can serve as a measuring tool and as a storage device. When the vertical cylinder tank is used as a measuring instrument, it needs to be calibrated. In this process, measuring the diameter of the vertical cylinder tank is the most important step. The diameter of the tank is divided into several parts, the first part is referred to as a reference, where the results of the reference measurement will be used in the measurement of other parts. To conduct this measurement, a prototype consisting of two sensors, namely, laser distance and rotary encoder, is build. The prototype was tested using five variations in standard tube diameters measured using a steel ruler. The results of this test produce an average correction of +0.17 mm with an error of 0.59%. Furthermore, the prototype is used to measure the diameter of the vertical cylinder tank, which is compared with the certificate of the results of tank measurements using a theodolite. Testing the prototype with a vertical cylindrical tank produces a correction of +8.73 mm with an error of 0.03%. This error value is within the error limit according to the OIML International Recommendation of R-071 for vertical tanks.

Young’s modulus determination for a vibrated metal ruler using Arduino

The article introduces a low-cost Arduino sensor into the Young’s modulus determination laboratory for physics university students. A stainless steel ruler is used as a cantilever beam. Its free end attached a mass is slightly bent and released to make it oscillate as a simple harmonic motion. The Arduino sensor detects the moving mass’s frequency at different loaded forces. This technique shows an acceptable value of Young’s modulus for the used ruler.

Developing a deep neural network model for predicting carrots volume

In this paper, a deep learning approach to predict carrots volume according to the physical properties was designed. A total of 464 carrots were used for volume prediction. The used carrots were taken from Kasinhani, Konya. First, the data was produced. For this, the length, the diameters with 5 cm intervals, and the volume of each carrot were measured and recorded. The measurements were done using a steel ruler, a vernier caliper, and a glass graduated cylinder. Two deep learning methods: DFN and LSTM were developed to predict carrot volume. The developed systems were implemented with the Keras library for Python. Statistical measures such as Root Mean Squared Error, Mean Absolute Error, and R2 were used to determine the predicting accuracy of the system. Both methods produced very close values. DFN and LSTM networks achieved 0.9765 and 0.9766 R2, respectively. RMSE values were 0.0312 for both models. The results obtained showed that both DFN and LSTM are successful and applicable to this task.

Design optimization, fabrication, and performance evaluation of solar parabolic trough collector for domestic applications

ABSTRACT In this paper, a brief study of small scale solar parabolic trough collector design, simulation, fabrication, and analyzed for heating water as a domestic purpose in the backward regions of developing countries are studied. During the designing phase, the solar parabolic trough collector aperture area was set as 1.5 m2 with 1 m wide and 1.5 m length. The design was done by using red laser light (631 nm) and stainless steel ruler template technique, then verified this design template with parabolic equation. After that, optimize the proposed design through Matlab simulation. Then fabricated the proposed design with different manufacturing techniques. Different experiments were conducted to analyze and evaluate the overall thermal performance of 1.5 m2 solar parabolic trough collector by placing it in two orientations i.e. East-West and North-South with respect to the sun tracking. The data were recorded and analyzed to check the overall efficiency and thermal performance of the system. The experimental results evaluated that efficiency and thermal performance of the solar parabolic trough collector was more when the focal line of the designed trough collector was placed in the East-West (61.66%) direction as compared to North-South direction (48.28%). Moreover, the designed collector raised the temperature of 100 liter water up-to 60°C within 5 hours of sunshine which is enough for four to five persons for bathing and laundry purposes in the winter season of backward and rural areas where there is a shortage of electricity and fossil fuels for domestic applications.

A Compact Laser Absorption Spectroscopy Tomographic System With Short Spectral Scanning Time and Adjustable Frame Rate

A compact hardware system for laser absorption spectroscopy tomography is introduced to monitor dynamic flame evolution with a short and fixed spectral scanning time and an adjustable frame rate. The system mainly consists of two parts, a pentagon sensor and a reconfigurable laser control and data acquisition hardware. In the sensor, 12 photodetectors are installed in each of the five sides of the pentagon. Fan-shaped laser beams from each vertex illuminate the opposite side and half of its two adjacent sides. Compared with the traditional illuminating scheme from each vertex to only the opposite side, this design reduces the sensor size and improves the spatial resolution. In the hardware, the distributed feedback lasers are integrated with the controller and modulated to generate a programmed waveform and implement spectral scanning. The spectral scanning time is short and fixed, and an adjustable frame rate is achieved by changing the interval, i.e., the waiting time, between two successive scans. The sampling rate of each channel can reach up to 20 MHz and is synchronized to the laser emission. A DDR2 memory is used for temporary data storage for four channels, enabling a full frame rate of up to 2 kHz. In the experiment, water vapor in a flat flame burner was chosen as the target absorbing species. Local integral absorbance and temperature distributions in the case of a moving steel ruler across the burner were reconstructed and agreed well with the observed distributions.

A WMS Based TDLAS Tomographic System for Distribution Retrievals of Both Gas Concentration and Temperature in Dynamic Flames

A tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) tomographic system was proposed via utilizing the wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) method and distributions of temperature and specie concentrations in the dynamic flames were simultaneously reconstructed for the first time. A five-view fan beam tomographic sensor was applied to capture the absorption spectrum along the laser paths across the region to be imaged. Light intensities in all paths were collected in a custom specific TDLAS hardware. Different phantoms of the temperature and water vapor concentration distributions were fabricated to generate artificial data of the absorption spectrum acquired in the sensor. Reconstructed images of the phantoms in the simulations agreed well with the original distributions, in cases of different random noises that varied from 1% to 7% of light intensities at each wavelength. Experiments on a McKenna burner and the exit of a wind tunnel were carried out, and distributions of temperature and water vapor’s molar concentration were achieved by applying the proposed WMS based TDLAS tomographic system. A moving steel ruler was used to disturb the flame in the burner and temporal variations of the flame over a cross section of the burner were imaged in a tomographic way. Tomographic results on exhaust flows at the exit of a wind tunnel coincided with the variation trend of temperature in eleven different working conditions and verified the robustness of the proposed system under harsh conditions.

Applications of optical frequency-domain reflectometry technology in strain-deformed configuration conversion of structural surface deformed configuration measurement

In this study, the conversion relation between deformed configuration and strain during structural monitoring was analyzed based on the basic mechanics principle of materials. A distributed fiber optic measurement system was used to measure the accurate values of structural surface strain, and then calculate the intensity of surface-deformed configuration further. An optical fiber was attached to the surface of a flexible steel ruler, and the generated strain data were used to precisely measure the endpoint-deformed configuration of the ruler. Furthermore, the calculated deformed configuration was calculated and compared with the actual deformed configuration. It was found that the curves of calculated deformed configuration basically coincided (with a relative error of less than 0.6%) with the curves of actual deformed configuration.

Implementation device for measuring water depth at proving ground test track

Tires adhesion on the wet surface between the road surface and vehicle tires is one of the requirement from ECE Regulation No.117 for tires sold in European countries. When tested on a specified test track, tires will be tested and compared the test results with standard reference test tires (SRTT). As a result, the performance index from measured tires is given and indicated by a wet grip index (G). ECE Regulation R117 specifies the wet grip index at a level of water depth between 0.5 and 1.5 mm on the test track surface [1]. The measurements can be done using a simple 150 mm steel ruler with the graduation of 0.5 mm. Before measuring, the tip of steel ruler is polished with Kolor Kut to show the different color when ruler tip is dipped into the water perpendicularly. Then record the data for monitoring the water depth of the test track. Since ECE Regulation R117 specifies the water depth at 1.0 mm +/- 0.5 mm, then it will need a measuring device which has a graduation of less than 0.5 mm. For this reason, we develop a tool for measurements water depth which able to show measurements of one-tenth of a millimeter.

Flexural vibrations of a thin clamped steel bar

We present experimental results of damped and forced lateral vibrations on a 6″ steel ruler in which the displacement measurements were made by an optical sensor. The experimental apparatus is straightforward to assemble and the phenomenon of resonance is easily observable and measurable. We verified that the Newtonian dynamics of the harmonic oscillator with one degree-of-freedom is sufficient to describe the oscillations of the bar. We obtained precise theoretical adjustments for time series data of damped oscillations, from which we found the dissipation constant and the resonance frequency of the resonator. With these parameters, we were able to adjust the amplitude and phase curves of forced oscillations around the resonance. In addition, we show that this system can also be used to measure small ac forces at resonance and as a sensitive mass sensor. Furthermore, we verified that the shapes of the first and second normal modes of vibration of the bar follow closely to the predicted shapes of the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory (EBBT). Moreover, we also measured the Young’s modulus of the bar and verified that the resonant frequency of the first normal mode depends on the length of the clamped bar according to the prediction by this theory. Finally, we proposed a theoretical model for calculating the effective mass of normal modes of the bar based on the EBBT. Very good agreement with experimental results for the fundamental mode was obtained.

The Euler–Bernoulli beam on a tensionless Winkler foundation: A simple problem of receding contact

A steel ruler supported by a flexible foam foundation, modelled as an Euler–Bernoulli beam on a Winkler foundation, exhibits receding contact when subjected to a point load. The system is analysed using simple beam theory and Laplace transformation – both of which are typically covered in the first two years of a UK Mechanical Engineering undergraduate programme. The design of a simple experiment is described.

Bubble growth, departure and rising of ethane at nucleate pool boiling condition

Boiling heat transfer exists in many industrial heat exchangers such as the evaporator of the refrigerator and the air conditioner, the reboiler of the chemical equipment and steam generator of the nuclear reactor. In the process of boiling, bubble movement can speed up the heat transfer between liquid and solid, leading to the improvement in heat transfer efficiency. Traditional refrigerants used in the industrial facilities have serious environmental problems, therefore, new substitutes are needed. Hydrocarbons are good alternatives. Ethane was suggested as one component of a mixed- refrigerant for its zero ozone depletion potential, low global warming potential and high thermodynamic properties. Therefore, it is important to investigate the bubble behavior of ethane in saturated nucleate pool boiling to design and optimize the industrial equipment like evaporator, improve natural gas liquefaction technology, and research characteristics of heat transfer and multiphase flow as well. Although there are a lot of researches on the heat transfer characteristics of pool boiling, the research on the bubble behavior in ethane is still lacking. In this paper, visualization experiments on the pool boiling heat transfer characteristics of ethane were carried out at 0.2 MPa. The heat fluxes varied from 14.65 kW m−2 to 80.79 kW m−2. Boiling occurred on the upward facing side of a smooth vertical copper cylinder with 20 mm diameter, connected to a DC power supply to control the heat flux on the surface. The measured roughness of the surface was 68.1 nm (root mean square average of the height deviations) and 50.7 nm (the arithmetic average of the absolute values of the surface height deviations). Acquisition of the temperature and pressure was accomplished by using a Keithley 2700 and six thermocouples. The experimental apparatus has a steel ruler inside the pool as the reference length to measure the bubble sizes and the maximum uncertainty for length measurement is 0.060 mm. Some conclusions can be drawn. (1) According to the change of diameter with time, the growth process was divided into three stages. The bubble growth process has obvious segmentation characteristics, and piecewise prediction models are recommended. (2) The bubbles in boiling pool exhibit the characteristics of axial symmetry and uneven distribution; the shape of separation of ethane bubbles has ellipsoidal and irregular shapes relative to normal temperature liquids. (3) There were trail changes and additional movements of large bubbles. Compared to normal temperature liquids, the trail changes were relatively simple; and the bubbles are bubbly and slug flow of two flow regimes. (4) System pressure, heating wall properties like surface roughness, liquid properties like contact angle and surface tension have an important influence on bubble behavior. This paper suggests that the heat transfer prediction equation should consider them.

Motor cognitive processing speed estimation among the primary schoolchildren by deriving prediction formula: A cross-sectional study.

Objectives:Motor cognitive processing speed (MCPS) is often reported in terms of reaction time. In spite of being a significant indicator of function, behavior, and performance, MCPS is rarely used in clinics and schools to identify kids with slowed motor cognitive processing. The reason behind this is the lack of availability of convenient formula to estimate MCPS. Thereby, the aim of this study is to estimate the MCPS in the primary schoolchildren.Materials and Methods:Two hundred and four primary schoolchildren, aged 6–12 years, were recruited by the cluster sampling method for this cross-sectional study. MCPS was estimated by the ruler drop method (RDM). By this method, a metallic stainless steel ruler was suspended vertically such that 5 cm graduation of the lower was aligned between the web space of the child's hand, and the child was asked to catch the moving ruler as quickly as possible, once released from the examiner's hand. Distance the ruler traveled was recorded and converted into time, which is the MCPS. Multiple regression analysis of variables was performed to determine the influence of independent variables on MCPS.Results:Mean MCPS of the entire sample of 204 primary schoolchildren is 230.01 ms ± 26.5 standard deviation (95% confidence interval; 226.4–233.7 ms) that ranged from 162.9 to 321.6 ms. By stepwise regression analysis, we derived the regression equation, MCPS (ms) = 279.625–5.495 × age, with 41.3% (R = 0.413) predictability and 17.1% (R2 = 0.171 and adjusted R2 = 0.166) variability.Conclusion:MCPS prediction formula through RDM in the primary schoolchildren has been established.

SU‐F‐P‐36: Automation of Linear Accelerator Star Shot Measurement with Advanced XML Scripting and Electronic Portal Imaging Device

Purpose:To verify a method used to automatically acquire jaw, MLC, collimator and couch star shots for a Varian TrueBeam linear accelerator utilizing Developer Mode and an Electronic Portal Imaging Device (EPID).Methods:An XML script was written to automate motion of the jaws, MLC, collimator and couch in TrueBeam Developer Mode (TBDM) to acquire star shot measurements. The XML script also dictates MV imaging parameters to facilitate automatic acquisition and recording of integrated EPID images. Since couch star shot measurements cannot be acquired using a combination of EPID and jaw/MLC collimation alone due to a fixed imager geometry, a method utilizing a 5mm wide steel ruler placed on the table and centered within a 15×15cm2 open field to produce a surrogate of the narrow field aperture was investigated. Four individual star shot measurements (X jaw, Y jaw, MLC and couch) were obtained using our proposed as well as traditional film‐based method. Integrated EPID images and scanned measurement films were analyzed and compared.Results:Star shot (X jaw, Y jaw, MLC and couch) measurements were obtained in a single 5 minute delivery using the TBDM XML script method compared to 60 minutes for equivalent traditional film measurements. Analysis of the images and films demonstrated comparable isocentricity results, agreeing within 0.3mm of each other.Conclusion:The presented automatic approach of acquiring star shot measurements using TBDM and EPID has proven to be more efficient than the traditional film approach with equivalent results.