Steam Injection Research Articles

Waste glass powder as a high temperature stabilizer in blended oil well cement pastes: Hydration, microstructure and mechanical properties

Recycling waste glass for diversified utilization has received increasing attention in recent years. This work aimed to reuse waste glass powder (GP) as a high temperature stabilizer to replace silica flour (SF) in blended G class oil well cement (GOWC) pastes. Blended pastes containing 40 % and 66.7 % GP were prepared and compared to pure GOWC paste and blended paste containing 40 % SF commonly used in the oil industry. Under simulated field conditions in a steam injection well, these pastes were cured at 50 °C for seven days, followed by three rounds of thermal cycling curing at high temperature and high pressure (HTHP, 300 °C/13 MPa) conditions. The effects of GP on the hydration kinetics, hydration products, microstructure, and mechanical properties of hardened pastes were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the addition of GP or SF reduced the compressive strength of the pastes at 50 °C due to dilution effect. Compared with SF, GP exhibited higher pozzolanic activity, prolonged the induction period, and promoted the formation of more C-(N)-S-H gels with lower Ca/Si ratios, which led to an increase in the gel pores content of the matrix and partially compensated for the loss of compressive strength due to the dilution effect. Additionally, due to the pozzolanic reaction of GP, the content of CH in the matrix decreased and its crystal size became smaller. After three rounds of thermal cycling curing, the incorporation of GP significantly increased the compressive strength of the hardened pastes. The compressive strengths of the hardened pastes with 40 % and 66.7 % GP were 20.33 MPa and 22.25 MPa, respectively, which were 7.62 % and 17.79 % higher than those of the hardened paste containing 40 % SF. In addition, the compressive strengths of hardened pastes containing 40 % and 66.7 % GP after three rounds of thermal cycling curing decreased by 22.49 % and 5.52 %, respectively, compared to the pastes at the low-temperature stage, while that of the pure GOWC pastes decreased by 83.8 %. Characterization analyses indicated that GP could further reduce the Ca/Si ratio of the system, modulate the crystallization of the gels at high temperatures, and generate foshagite or xonotlite phases with high polymerization structure and thermal stability, instead of reinhardbraunsite. These products effectively refined pore structure and enhanced microstructure densification. Furthermore, the precipitation of Na+ ions during hydration did not affect the microstructure of the matrix. This study offers some guidelines for recycling waste glass, conserving raw materials, and producing sustainable blended cement pastes.

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE USE OF SEDIMENTATION COMPOSITIONS DURING STEAM INJECTION

At present time, many oil fields, especially in historically developed areas of The experience of developing deposits of high-viscosity oils (HVO) and natural bitumen has shown that thermal methods are the most promising technologies. Of the entire arsenal of thermal methods, areal steam injection and cyclic-steam stimulation have become the most widespread.When choosing an effective thermal impact technology, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the geological and physical parameters of deposits and the factors involved in oil recovery. An effective technology should be based on the use of the main most important factors that increase oil recovery.One example of areal steam injection is the underground-surface method of developing the Yarega area of the Yaregskoef ield. With this technology, steam is pumped from the surface through vertical wells. Oil production is carried out in the underground galleries of the oil sheds.Twenty years of practice and geophysical studies of steam injection wells have revealed a number of factors that prevent uniform heating of the reservoir over the entire thickness and efficient use of coolant energy. It turned out that the injected steam is mainly concentrated in the bed zone of the formation. In this case, the formation does not warm up evenly in thickness. The heterogeneity of the reservoir (tectonic disturbances, cracks every 20-25 m) does not allow the creation of steam pressure up to 1,6 MPa along the contour of the developed areas in order to involve the inclined block. At design pressures, steam breaks into mine workings and gently descending production wells are observed.The experimental studies described in this work are aimed at finding alignment of the intake profile of steam injection wells and redistribution of coolant in a remote reservoir zone. The results of the application of sedimentation compositions in bulk reservoir models under various thermobaric conditions of steam injection are presented. As a result of injection of solutions of iron sulfate, sodium carbonate and calcium chloride, insoluble sediments were formed in the rock, which led to a decrease in permeability during water vapor filtration. The experimental study was performed on a bulk reservoir model using natural core grinding, as well as drilled and extracted core samples from wells of the Yaregskoe field. The use of sedimentation compositions in steam injection wells in the future may contribute to the involvement of rock sections in the development by redistributing the steam flow, which in turn will increase the oil recovery coefficient and reduce the steam-oil ratio.

CFD simulation of thermal stratification and mixing in a Nordic BWR pressure suppression pool

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) employs the Pressure Suppression Pool (PSP) as a heat sink to prevent overpressure of the reactor vessel and containment. Steam can be injected into the PSP through spargers in normal and accident conditions and through blowdown pipes in case of a loss of coolant accident (LOCA). There is a safety limit on the maximum PSP temperature at which such steam injection might cause dynamic loads on the containment structures. The performance of the pool can be affected if thermal stratification is developed when temperature of the hot layer grows rapidly while cold layer remains inactive. Simulation of pool behavior during realistic accident scenarios requires validated models that can sufficiently address the interaction between phenomena, safety systems and operational procedures. Direct modeling of steam injection into a water pool in long-term transients is computationally expensive due to the need to resolve simultaneously the smallest space and time scales of individual steam bubbles and the scales of the whole PSP. To enable PSP analysis for practical purposes, Effective Heat source and Effective Momentum source (EHS/EMS) models have been proposed that avoid the need to resolve steam-water interface. This paper aims to implement mechanistic approaches previously developed by authors for the simulation of transient thermal stratification and mixing phenomena induced by steam injection through spargers in a Nordic BWR PSP. The latest version of the EHS/EMS models using the ‘Unit cell’ approach has been validated against integral effect pool tests and applied to plant simulations. Several scenarios with boundary conditions corresponding to postulated accident sequences were simulated to investigate the possibility of stratification development and the effects of activation of different systems (e.g., blowdown pipes, high momentum nozzle) on the pool behavior.

Enhancing equipment qualification testing facility for nuclear power plants: Achieving rapid temperature and pressure increase during design basis events

The present study focuses on the development of an equipment qualification (EQ) testing facility for Class 1E equipment in nuclear power plants (NPPs), emphasizing the need to ensure safety functions under design basis events (DBEs). The Republic of Korea (ROK) has implemented international safety standards to support large NPP projects, necessitating the development of domestic EQ testing facilities to reduce the dependence on foreign facilities. To address this need, herein, a specialized facility capable of simulating harsh DBE conditions that may occur in NPPs in ROK was constructed. Through exhaustive research, target temperature and pressure profiles were developed for pressurized water reactors, and a superheated steam injection technique was devised for rapid temperature and pressure changes. The present study contributes to the advancement of domestic EQ testing capabilities, achieving up to 230 °C and 700 kPa within 30 s.

Innovative approaches in enhanced oil recovery: A focus on gas injection synergies with other EOR methods

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) techniques have become crucial in extending the productive life of mature oil fields and maximizing resource extraction. Among these, gas injection methods, particularly those involving CO₂, nitrogen, and hydrocarbon gases, have shown significant promise. This review focuses on the innovative synergies achieved by combining gas injection with other EOR methods to enhance recovery efficiency and economic viability. Gas injection techniques work by increasing reservoir pressure and reducing oil viscosity, facilitating easier flow and extraction. When integrated with other EOR methods such as thermal, chemical, and microbial techniques, the synergistic effects can lead to even greater enhancements in oil recovery. For instance, the combination of gas injection with thermal EOR, like steam injection, can improve the displacement of heavy oils by simultaneously reducing viscosity and enhancing thermal conductivity within the reservoir. Similarly, integrating gas injection with chemical EOR methods, such as polymer flooding, can optimize the sweep efficiency by leveraging the mobility control provided by polymers and the pressure maintenance by gases. Recent advancements in monitoring and simulation technologies have further improved the effectiveness of these combined approaches. Real-time reservoir simulation and 4D seismic monitoring allow for precise tracking of gas and fluid movements, enabling dynamic adjustments to injection parameters for optimal performance. Smart well technologies, equipped with advanced downhole sensors, provide continuous data on reservoir conditions, facilitating more responsive and adaptive EOR strategies. However, these innovative synergies are not without challenges. Economic feasibility remains a significant concern, particularly given the high costs associated with gas procurement and the integration of multiple EOR techniques. Additionally, managing the complex interactions between different EOR methods and heterogeneous reservoir conditions requires sophisticated modeling and robust operational protocols. In conclusion, the integration of gas injection with other EOR methods offers a promising pathway to enhance oil recovery rates and extend the lifespan of mature reservoirs. Continued research and development, coupled with cross-industry collaboration, are essential to overcoming the economic and technical challenges associated with these innovative approaches. This review underscores the potential for gas injection synergies to revolutionize EOR practices and drive sustainable growth in the oil and gas industry.

Development and Testing of a Gas Turbine Test Rig Setup for Demonstrating New Aviation Propulsion Concepts

To further increase efficiency and to significantly reduce climate impact in the aviation sector, new propulsion concepts must be developed. As full electrification in mid- and long-range aviation is impractical due to the low gravimetric energy density of batteries, new approaches must be developed. Therefore, the so-called hybrid electric ground demonstrator (HeBo), equipped with a Rolls Royce M250-C20B gas turbine is set up. The test rig serves as a development platform for various new gas turbine-based propulsion concepts for aviation, such as hybrid electric concepts or a novel cycle concept with steam injection to the combustor, which are described in this paper. The main focus of the work is on the experimental setup and the commissioning of the baseline test rig. This will place the test rig in the context of current research activities and serve as reference for subsequent research results.

Evaluation of the Pilot Test Effect of Steam Stimulation in Horizontal Wells of Sand Bodies 1-1308 in Bohai L Oilfield

In order to reduce the risk of large-scale thermal recovery of heavy oil in Bohai Oilfield, L Oilfield is selected to carry out horizontal well steam stimulation pilot tests. Previous studies have summarized the rationality of the injection parameters and initial production characteristics of this experiment, but the evaluation of its development effectiveness is still blank. Based on the study of the decline law of A23H well cold recovery using reservoir engineering methods, this article evaluates the initial production capacity, production increase effect, technical recoverable reserves, and throughput cycles of steam stimulation. The results show that the thermal recovery production of steam stimulation is three times that of cold recovery, which can significantly improve the production capacity of a single well. The initial daily oil production of two wells is 74m<sup>3</sup>/d and 90m<sup>3</sup>/d, respectively, which is 3.0 times and 3.6 times that of the initial production of cold recovery, exceeding the design level of the reservoir; The first round has the best yield increase effect, with an average daily oil increase of 31m<sup>3</sup>/d, and gradually decreasing thereafter. By the fifth round, it was only 13m<sup>3</sup>/d. In terms of yield increase multiples, each round can reach about 2 times; The technically recoverable reserves are 19.03 × 10<sup>4</sup>m<sup>3</sup>, requiring 8-9 rounds. Through this performance evaluation, we have strengthened our confidence in promoting the application of steam injection technology in Bohai Oilfield to achieve large-scale thermal recovery.

Geological and geochemical characterization of caprock integrity in the Athabasca oilsands region

Caprocks play a pivotal role in petroleum systems for the accumulation of oil and gas, as well as in processes such as steam injection for heavy oil recovery and geological storage of CO2. In this study, the geological and geochemical characteristics of the caprock from the Cretaceous Wabiskaw Member (Mbr.) and overlying Clearwater Formation (Fm.), situated above the Athabasca oil sand region, were thoroughly examined using core samples obtained from well 1-22-90-14W4. Through HAWK programmed pyrolysis and solvent extraction, the caprock succession was revealed to exhibit limited organic content with total organic carbon content < 2.0 wt% and extractable organic matter (EOM) < 200 ppm. Further analysis using gas chromatography-flame ionization detector and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry on EOM unveiled insights into the mixing dynamics between the underlying oil reservoir and the caprock indigenous materials. Distinct trends in the ratios of low molecular weight (LMW) aromatic hydrocarbons, N-shielded carbazole, benzo[c]carbazole, and concentrations of carbazoles and benzocarbazoles were evident within a 5-m distance from the caprock-reservoir contact, indicating significant fractionation among compounds. Enrichment of these compounds was observed in the shale of the Wabiskaw Mbr., with a reversal of trends occurring within the initial 5 m into the overlying shale of the Clearwater Fm., suggesting limited oil penetration into the shale. The main Clearwater Fm. caprock succession was characterized by a dominance of immature, indigenous terrigenous organic matter, along with background concentrations of carbazole and benzocarbazole and an absence of N-shielded and/or LMW compound preferences. This composition starkly differed from the oil found in the underlying reservoir. The presence of calcareous cements in the Clearwater Fm. shale, approximately 5 m above the base, characterized by high bulk density (with 62% siderite), low porosity, and matrix permeability, contributed significantly to enhancing the sealing capacity of the caprock. The overall results provide compelling evidence that vertical oil leakage from the McMurray Fm. reservoir through the overlying shale of the Clearwater Fm. has not occurred during the post-lithification history with exception of the lower-most 5 m. The clay-rich argillaceous units identified in this study emerge as potential candidates for serving as effective caprock seals for steam injection and CO2 storage.

Numerical study of the impact of hot steam injection in the condensation flow through the low-pressure stage of steam turbine

Nowadays, steam turbines are the devices vastly used for energy generation in power plants. Accordingly, their performance and efficiency are crucially significant. In the last stages of the steam turbine, the presence of liquid phase decreases the efficiency and causes thermodynamic and dynamic losses. Various parameters can affect the steam flow and change the liquid droplets generated as well as the wetness fraction. In the present study, the hot steam injection parameter which affects the wetness decrease for the low-pressure stage of a steam turbine (LPST) has been investigated. First, the impact of hot steam injection (HSI) was studied on the wet steam flow parameters. Hot steam is injected on the suction surface of the stator with various slot angles and slot widths to select the optimal case. The goal of this study is to achieve the optimal value of injection variables to use this method further. To apply this, the LKHCE (Liquid mass, Kinetic energy, Hot steam, Condensation loss, Efficiency) criterion is used for all modes. Also, by examining the results of this method and using the TOPSIS, the optimal case can be selected. The condensing flow of wet steam through the stator-rotor blades is modeled using an Eulerian-Eulerian model and the SST k-turbulence model. Case 6 (angle 40°, slot width 0.1(cm)) for HSI is predicted as the optimal case, in which RL and RC decrease by 35.5 % and 34.6%, respectively, and RE is increased by 1.3%. The HSI caused a slight decrease in RK by 0.3% at the steam turbine stage’s outflow.

Viability of the steam-based extraction of extra-heavy crude oil using nanoparticles: Exergy and life-cycle assessment

The growing energy demand has prompted the research community to seek more efficient and sustainable resource extraction methods, particularly in the case of crude oil. Investigating the potential of nanotechnology to enhance crude-oil recovery from extra-heavy and heavy crude-oil reserves is crucial for optimizing resource utilization, improving economic viability, minimizing environmental impacts, driving technological advancement, ensuring energy security, and meeting market demands. In this study, we investigated the implementation of exergy analysis (ExA) on nanotechnology in oil-recovery processes, which has not previously been explored. This involved a life-cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental impacts and to complement the ExA in order to optimize operations. To environmentally and thermodynamically analyze the extraction process of extra-heavy crude oil, four scenarios were evaluated: i) steam injection at 0.5 quality; ii) steam injection at 1.0 quality; iii) steam injection at 0.5 quality with 500 mg L−1 of nanoparticles; and iv) steam injection at 1.0 quality with 500 mg L−1 of nanoparticles. The nanofluids used (AlNi1 and AlNi1Pd1) consisted of 500 mg L−1 of alumina (Al2O3) doped with a 1.0 % mass fraction of nickel (Ni) (i.e., AlNi1), and the same amount of alumina doped with a 1.0 % mass fraction of Ni and palladium (Pd) (i.e., AlNi1Pd1). Both nanofluids were supplemented with 1000 mg L−1 of Tween 80. The experiments were conducted in a laboratory and numerical simulation was used to upscale the different scenarios. Considering the equilibrium K-values model, a multiphase/multicomponent flow model coupled with an energy transport equation was utilized. Nanocatalyst transport, as per the experimental data, involved non-equilibrium transference between the liquid phases and the rock surface. The laboratory data were used to calibrate the model, which was then scaled up to reservoir conditions to estimate the oil recovery obtained from deploying in-situ upgrading processes at the field scale. Exergy calculations were performed on the involved flows and porous media in order to assess the crude-oil quality throughout the process. An LCA was implemented to evaluate the reduction in environmental impact achieved by using steam injection at X = 1.0 quality, with and without nanoparticles. The results of the ExA showed that using nanoparticles allowed crude oil with a higher energy quality to be obtained. Furthermore, the ExA showed that the increase in steam quality had a more significant effect on the exergy destroyed in the process than the use of nanomaterials, demonstrating the good performance of the proposed technology. Environmental analyses showed that marine ecotoxicity, urban land occupation, particulate matter formation, and global warming potential were the most-impacted categories, significantly contributing to total environmental impacts, after the fossil depletion impact category for all scenarios. In conclusion, using bimetallic nanoparticles in crude-oil extraction produces a better product with better energy and environmental performance.

Effects of magnetic field on removal of light non aqueous phase liquid from unsaturated zone using steam injection

Effects of magnetic field on removal of light non aqueous phase liquid from unsaturated zone using steam injection

Extraction of patchouli essential oil using multi-injection steam distillation

Abstract Patchouli essential oil is typically obtained through traditional batch distillation, a process involving the introduction of a sole stream of steam at the base of the tank or column, followed by the condensation of the resulting vapor at the top of the tank. In a quest to explore the impact of the multiple injection steam method on both the yield and quality of the oil product, a comparison with the conventional single injection steam approach was conducted. The research variables encompassed different steam valve openings. The findings revealed that the steam valve openings indeed played a role in affecting the yield of the oil product. Curiously, the utilization of the multiple injection steam method yielded a somewhat lower oil output compared to the single injection steam approach. Specifically, with varying steam valve openings, the average yield for the multiple injection steam method hovered around 2.6%. In contrast, the single injection steam method consistently demonstrated a superior average yield of about 3.9%. Intriguingly, an examination of the essential components of patchouli oil, particularly the patchouli alcohol content, indicated no marked disparity between the two methods. This suggests that the utilization of the multiple injection steam method did not substantially alter the essential oil’s composition.

A mixed nonlocal finite element model for thermo‐poro‐elasto‐plastic simulation of porous media with multiphase fluid flow

SummaryA new mixed nonlocal finite element framework is developed for nonlinear thermo‐poro‐elasto‐plastic simulation of porous media with multiphase pore fluid flow and thermal coupling. The solid‐fluid interaction is accounted for using the mixture theory of Biot based on the volume fractions concept. Different sources of nolinearities arising from the multiphase fluid flow effects, advective‐diffusive heat transfer, inelastic deformation, fluid flux injection induced mechanical tractions, solid skeleton deformation permeability dependence, and temperature dependent viscosity are included in developing a robust numerical solver for the targeted coupled multiphysics problem. To address the effect of microstructure in inelastic localized deformation behaviour with dilational softening, a nonlocal plasticity model is proposed based on a characteristic length scale which rectifies the non‐physical pathological mesh dependence problem encountered in conventional plasticity. The accuracy and strength of the developed model is shown with comparing the obtained numerical results of a benchmark bilateral compression test with existing published data in the literature. To show the versatility and robustness of the developed computational framework in modelling the geomechanics of real‐case engineering practices, large scale thermo‐hydro‐mechanical (THM) subsurface stimulation processes with applications in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) are effectively simulated and the targeted enhanced recovery and performances are demonstrated. The current formulation does not include phase transformation modelling capability, and therefore, the developed models may not be applicable for simulation of the engineering processes that involve phase change behaviour (e.g., steam injection).

Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Heating Oil and Tyre Pyrolysis Oil Combustion in an Evaporative Combustion Chamber

This research aims to delve into the intricacies of combustion processes, specifically focusing on heating oil and a blend of heating oil with Tire Pyrolysis Oil (TPO) in a self-developed evaporative combustion chamber featuring steam injection. The primary objective is to scrutinize the impact of steam injection on the combustion dynamics. Conducting a series of tests, the investigation involved the meticulous manipulation of stoichiometric ratios while introducing ambient air through gravity fuel flow. Subsequent iterations of these tests incorporated the introduction of steam into the ambient air stream. The examination encompassed the combustion of both heating oil and the TPO blend within the combustion chamber. The evaluation criteria comprised an in-depth analysis of flame characteristics, temperature distribution within the combustion chamber, and the quantification of emissions such as particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and water vapor (H2O). Throughout the experimentation phase, commercially available diesel fuel served as the primary fuel source. To facilitate the tests, the combustion chamber under scrutiny was seamlessly integrated into an AVL engine test bench system. Essential parameters, including fuel consumption, were meticulously gauged using an AVL 735 fuel flow meter, while fuel temperature was monitored using the AVL 745 fuel temperature conditioning system. The intake air, a crucial element in the combustion process, was quantified with precision using an AVL Flowsonix sensor. Emission measurements were conducted meticulously using state-of-the-art equipment, with gaseous emissions analyzed using an AVL FTIR AMA i60 exhaust gas analyzer. Simultaneously, soot emissions were quantified through employment of an AVL Micro Soot sensor. This comprehensive approach not only delves into the fundamental aspects of combustion but also extends its reach to the exploration of innovative techniques, such as steam injection, to enhance combustion efficiency and reduce emissions. The integration of advanced measurement tools ensures a robust and thorough analysis of the combustion process and its environmental implications.

Influence of Organic Catalysts in Naphtha Solution on the Heavy Colombian Crude Oil Upgrading During Steam Injection

Influence of Organic Catalysts in Naphtha Solution on the Heavy Colombian Crude Oil Upgrading During Steam Injection

Synergizing Solar Power with Enhanced Oil Recovery: Integrating Solar-Assisted Methods into Existing EOR Techniques

This study investigates the utilization of solar energy to enhance the efficiency of oil recovery processes, known as Solar Assist-Enhanced Oil Recovery (SA-EOR). The project objectives involve assessing the feasibility and effectiveness of integrating solar technologies with traditional oil recovery methods, such as steam injection or water flooding, to improve oil production rates and reduce operational costs. Methods employed include computational modeling, laboratory experiments, and field trials to evaluate various solar-assisted techniques and their impact on oil recovery. Key findings suggest that solar integration can enhance oil recovery by optimizing thermal processes, improving fluid mobility, and reducing environmental footprint. Additionally, the study underscores the economic viability and sustainability of SA-EOR solutions in the context of evolving energy landscapes. Overall, this research contributes valuable insights into the potential of solar technologies to revolutionize conventional oil recovery practices and advance towards more efficient and environmentally friendly energy production methods. Methods, termed Solar Assist-Enhanced Oil Recovery (SA-EOR). The objective is to investigate the efficacy of utilizing solar power to optimize thermal processes in oil extraction, such as steam injection or water flooding. Through computational modeling, laboratory experiments, and field trials, various SA-EOR techniques are evaluated for their potential to enhance oil recovery rates and reduce environmental impact. Findings indicate promising opportunities for leveraging solar energy to improve fluid mobility, optimize reservoir conditions, and ultimately increase oil production efficiency. This research underscores the significance of SA-EOR methods in advancing sustainable energy practices within the oil industry while addressing pressing environmental concerns.

Experimental and visual investigation on energy-efficient and zero greenhouse gas emission post-steam-assisted gravity drainage heavy-oil recovery improvement

Recent core-scale visualization studies performed by us have highlighted the promising potential of utilizing hydrocarbon solvents in alternating with steam injection for optimizing post-steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) processes. This technique not only improves hydrocarbon recovery but also improves economic viability and reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, further investigations, including tests with non-hydrocarbon solvents and SAGD sandpack experiments, are necessary to provide robust comparisons and recommendations. This study focuses on SAGD sandpack experiments using both hydrocarbon (heptane) and non-hydrocarbon (carbon dioxide gas) solvents for post-SAGD applications. The experiments—conducted under reservoir conditions—demonstrated significant improvements in heavy-oil/bitumen recovery by up to 50 %, compared to conventional methods. Moreover, the use of non-hydrocarbon and liquid hydrocarbon solvents could eliminate the need for aggressive steam utilization, thus enhancing energy efficiency. Additionally, the potential for solvent recovery was evaluated to optimize the process further.

Influence of loading on the heat transfer rate and specific water consumption of detached loosed fresh palm fruits during vertical mini-batch sterilization

This study presents the effect of loading on the heat transfer rate and specific water consumption of detached loosed fresh palm fruits during sterilization. Sterilization is an integral process of palm oil extraction that consumes a lot of water. However, most industrial research in the past focused on fresh fruit bunch (FFB) sterilization dynamics. At the same time, the medium- and small-scale industries sterilize already detached loosed fresh palm fruits (LFPF) that have been removed from the spikelet as purchased from aggregators. Therefore, the process data generated from the sterilization of FFB might not be optimal for sterilizing LFPF. This study, therefore, investigates the transient response of variation in LFPF loading of the sterilization chamber to steam injection during steam sterilization of LFPF at 3 ± 0.5 bars using a vertical, single-peak LFPF sterilizer that combines the boiler and sterilizer in a single unit. The LFPF were loaded at mass intervals of 0.2 kg ranging from 0.2 kg to 2 kg. The vapour temperature dynamics, heat transfer rate, steam energy utilization efficiency and specific water consumption parameters were studied. The average vapour temperature varied from 100 °C to 130 °C for the LFPF mass range of 0.2 to 2 kg at steam injection temperature of 140 °C and pressure of 3 ± 0.5 bars. This temperature range matched the saturated vapour temperature of pure water at 1.0––2.8 bars absolute pressure but slightly lower than the saturated vapour temperature of 133.54 °C for pure steam at 3 bars. The percentage of steam energy utilization effectiveness is inversely related to the steam mass flow rate. While energy effectiveness increased with loading mass, the steam mass flow rate decreased with increased LFPF mass. The value of the heat transfer rate ranged between 1.7––55.4 W, while the specific heat transfer rate ranged between 8.5–––41.8 W/kg. The average specific water consumption ranged from 0.014 to 0.09 kg-water/kg-LFPF, with an average value of 0.031 kg-water/kg-LFPF. This value is lower than 0.112–––0.5 kg-water/kg-FFB, with an average value of 0.256 kg-water/kg-FFB for conventional FFB steam sterilization. This represents an 87.9 % reduction in water consumption in conventional FFB steam sterilization. An empirical model deduced for specific heat transfer rate and water consumption for steam sterilization of LFPF at 3 ± 0.5 bars and vapour temperature range of 100––130 °C showed a high coefficient of determination above 99 %.

Effect of long reaction distance on gas composition from organic-rich shale pyrolysis under high-temperature steam environment

When high-temperature steam is used as a medium to pyrolyze organic-rich shale, water steam not only acts as heat transfer but also participates in the chemical reaction of organic matter pyrolysis, thus affecting the generation law and release characteristics of gas products. In this study, based on a long-distance reaction system of organic-rich shale pyrolysis via steam injection, the effects of steam temperature and reaction distance on gas product composition are analyzed in depth and compared with other pyrolysis processes. The advantages of organic-rich shale pyrolysis via steam injection are then evaluated. The volume concentration of hydrogen in the gas product obtained via the steam injection pyrolysis of organic-rich shale is the highest, which is more than 60%. The hydrogen content increases as the reaction distance is extended; however, the rate of increase changes gradually. Increasing the reaction distance from 800 to 4000 mm increases the hydrogen content from 34.91% to 69.68% and from 63.13% to 78.61% when the steam temperature is 500 °C and 555 °C, respectively. However, the higher the heat injection temperature, the smaller the reaction distance required to form a high concentration hydrogen pyrolysis environment (hydrogen concentration > 60%). When the steam pyrolysis temperature is increased from 500 °C to 555 °C, the reaction distance required to form a high concentration of hydrogen is reduced from 3800 to 800 mm. Compared with the direct retorting process, the volume concentration of hydrogen obtained from high-temperature steam pyrolysis of organic-rich shale is 8.82 and 10.72 times that of the commonly used Fushun and Kivite furnaces, respectively. The pyrolysis of organic-rich shale via steam injection is a pyrolysis process in a hydrogen-rich environment.

Foaming Properties and Foam Structure of Milk Determined by Its Protein Content and Protein to Fat Ratio

AbstractMilk proteins, integral to stable foam production, exhibit seasonal and type-dependent variations. Understanding the impact of protein levels with and without fat on foaming properties is essential for selecting suitable milk types and controlling the foaming process. In this study, we employed steam injection and mechanical mixing to assess foamability, foam stability, and foam structure of (1) reconstituted skim milk powder dispersions (1.5–15% solids concentration, corresponding to 0.5–5.0% protein), (2) reconstituted whole milk powder and commercial whole milk dispersions (0.5% protein), and (3) whole milk with added skim milk powder and milk protein concentrate (3.5 and 4% protein) and butter milk powder (0.5 and 1% total solid content). Results reveal that increasing solids concentration from 1.5 to 15% significantly increased lactose content, viscosity, and surface tension. However, these changes did not impact foamability or foam stability, while slightly decreasing air bubble size. At 0.5% protein, skim milk powder dispersions demonstrated higher foam volume (16 times greater) and more stable foam compared to reconstituted whole milk powder and whole milk dispersions, despite similar foam structure and appearance. These findings emphasize the substantial influence of the protein/fat ratio on milk’s foaming properties. Additionally, the addition of skim milk powder, milk protein concentrate, or butter milk powder at the investigated content did not affect the foaming properties of whole milk.