State Of Infrastructure Research Articles

Place character and workforce housing policy frames

ABSTRACT Affordable housing policy has shifted from government-sponsored to primarily market led, leading to the potential for high variation in policies across places. Despite this, many municipalities have trended toward workforce housing as a policy frame to provide housing for those who cannot afford market rate housing but who do not qualify for government subsidies. In this paper, we use place character – the confluence of political, economic, social, and infrastructural conditions that shape and are shaped by meaning and action – to explain how workforce housing policy is framed at the local level in ways that contribute to the policy’s path dependency. We draw upon the case of a zoning change in a small city in the United States that enables the rezoning of land to allow for the conversion of hotels/motels into affordable housing units. We found that municipal officials and property stakeholders exploited place character to frame affordable housing policy as “workforce housing” in ways that engaged localized conditions and discourses to garner community support. These findings provide insight into how housing policies and practices become path dependent through municipal proceedings, despite social, political, and economic heterogeneity at the local level.

Integration of on-board monitoring data into infrastructure management for effective decision-making in railway maintenance

Abstract Railway infrastructure is a crucial asset for the mobility of people and goods. The increased traffic frequency imposes higher loads and speeds, leading to accelerated infrastructure degradation. Asset managers require timely information regarding the current (diagnosis) and future (prognosis) condition of their assets to make informed decisions on maintenance and renewal actions. In recent years, in-service vehicles equipped with on-board monitoring (OBM) measuring devices, such as accelerometers, have been introduced on railroad networks, traversing the network almost daily. This article explores the application of state-of-the-art OBM-based track quality indicators for railway infrastructure condition assessment and prediction, primarily under the prism of track geometry quality. The results highlight the similarities and advantages of applying track quality indicators generated from OBM measurements (high frequency and relatively lower accuracy data) compared to those generated from higher precision, yet temporally sparser, data collected by traditional track recording vehicles (TRVs) for infrastructure management purposes. The findings demonstrate the performance of the two approaches, further revealing the value of OBM information for monitoring the track status degradation process. This work makes a case for the advantageous use of OBM data for railway infrastructure management, and attempts to aid understanding in the application of OBM techniques for engineers and operators.

Analysis of factors influencing electric vehicle adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa using a modified UTAUT framework

Electric vehicles (EVs) powered by renewable energy are central to achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7.2, which aims to increase the share of renewable energy and reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector. A 2023 projection estimated that EV sales in leading EV-importing Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, including Nigeria, Ethiopia, South Africa, Kenya, Rwanda, Mauritius, and Seychelles, would exceed 700 million units within 5 years and grow to 4 million by 2037. Despite these optimistic forecasts, the current adoption rate of EVs in SSA remains significantly low. This study extends the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework to identify key factors influencing EV adoption in the region. The model incorporates facilitating conditions, trust, performance expectancy, social influence, network externalities, and effort expectancy as critical determinants. Empirical results reveal that facilitating conditions (H6) have a 30% stronger effect on behavioral intentions compared to network externalities (H5). These findings highlight the need for robust infrastructure, supportive policies, and favorable conditions to accelerate EV adoption in SSA and shape EV purchase decisions. The paper concludes by discussing the empirical results and proposing directions for future research to deepen understanding of EV adoption dynamics in the region.

Poverty Reduction Through Adaptive Social Protection and Spatial Poverty Model in Labuan Bajo, Indonesia’s National Strategic Tourism Areas

Despite Indonesia’s significant economic progress, certain regions, such as West Manggarai Regency in East Nusa Tenggara, continue to face persistent poverty challenges. While strategic tourism initiatives in Labuan Bajo have spurred regional development, the benefits have not reached local communities equitably, highlighting a disconnect between economic growth and community well-being. Addressing this gap requires an integrated approach that links social protection, disaster risk reduction, climate adaptation, and economic diversification. This paper proposes an adaptive social protection (ASP) framework that aims to increase the resilience of vulnerable populations by integrating social protection systems with disaster preparedness and sustainable economic strategies. The research critically examines the Regional Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMD) of Kabupaten Manggarai Barat (2021–2026), identifying existing policy gaps and opportunities for improvement. Using a mixed-methods approach, this study used cluster mapping and geographically weighted regression analysis to model and visualise poverty distribution alongside infrastructure conditions. These findings will inform the design of a targeted ASP programme to reduce poverty and build resilience to economic and environmental shocks. By aligning with sustainable development principles, the proposed framework addresses the dual goals of poverty reduction and disaster risk reduction. This study provides actionable recommendations for local governments to strengthen social protection mechanisms, promote inclusive economic growth, and ensure equitable distribution of tourism benefits. The findings provide a policy blueprint for promoting sustainable and inclusive development in West Manggarai Regency, with implications for similar contexts in other regions.

Domestic Wastewater Management Program in East Bolaang Mongondow Regency

This study aims to determine, analyze and describe the condition of infrastructure and the supporting and inhibiting factors of the domestic wastewater management program in East Bolaang Mongondow Regency. The research method used is qualitative research method. The results showed that first, Policy Standards and Objectives; The leaders in the Public Works and Spatial Planning Office (PUTR) already know the regulatory basis related to Domestic Wastewater Management. Then the people in Matabulu Village do not know the rules that apply to this program. And also in Matabulu Village, so far there has been no Standard Operational Procedure provided by the District Government to the Village Government. Even the achievement of the Program target is still not optimal. Second, Resources in Program Implementation; Program Beneficiaries are right on target, but the budget funds in this program are still lacking. Then there is participation provided by the Matabulu Village Community, such as providing land grants and labor assistance in the process of developing a Domestic Wastewater Management System (SPALD). And there are also parties who are responsible for the implementation of this program in East Bolaang Mongondow Regency, namely from the Community Self-Help Group (KSM). Third, Communication between Program Implementers; KSMs who carry out regular reporting to the Village Government and even to the PUTR Office. Furthermore, the socialization given to beneficiaries is only about the construction of septic tanks or the construction of this program, and there has been no further socialization related to this program in Matabulu Village. But it is also found that there is still a lack of providing solutions from implementers and beneficiaries related to existing obstacles.

The Romanian coastal area and green transport infrastructure

The first part of the paper presents the local transport infrastructure conditions of the Romanian Coastal Area. The Coastal Area, from the geographical point of view is located on the East and South - East of the country, being part of South – East Development Region. It is aggregated mainly in two counties, Tulcea, where is found the intersection of Danube with Black Sea in Danube Delta and, Constanta where is the entire Romanian Black Sea shoreline. The first part also presents the steps that are already made by Romanian authorities to ensure the sustainability and reduce the pollution by increasing the green transport infrastructure. The second part of the paper presents the analysis of the transport system in the region together with the supporting data, and the challenges that puts pressure on our coastal area. Finaly, the aim is to come with solutions in order to increase sustainability, climate resilience, and to reduce the vulnerability on our coastal area with the purpose of multiplying and creating a good practice example for the entire community.

Spatial differentiation of Poland's voivodeship in the context of linear infrastructure development in 2011-2021

The development of linear infrastructure is important for the development of logistics, for the economic development of regions. The is at the same time spatially differentiated between regions. The regions are strongly developing their linear infrastructure in order to reduce the disparities in the development of facilities and roads. The aim of the study was to diagnose the condition of linear infrastructure and to indicate its spatial changes in the years 2011-2021 in Poland. The were used to build a synthetic measure using the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution method. The synthetic measure of linear infrastructure ranged from 0.01 (warmińsko-mazurskie) to 0.60 (śląskie) in 2010 and 0.31 (świętokrzyskie, podlaskie) to 0.56 (śląskie, małopolskie) in 2021. A higher value of synthetic measure of linear infrastructure indicates a better position and higher competitiveness of the voivodeship within the research area. The provinces well equipped with linear infrastructure include the provinces of śląskie, dolnośląskie, małopolskie. The provinces where there is an improvement, and road connections are developing, include podlaskie, świętokrzyskie. They are not counted among the highly developed economically and do not make the best use of the opportunities offered by a developed road network. Action taken in this aspect must be based on analyses to facilitate comparisons and on current information necessary for effective action.

Walking and cycling friendliness as proxies to retrofit active transport infrastructure

Active transport modes, such as walking and cycling, have been promoted by scientific studies and policy-makers due to congestion-reduction and health benefits, and low environmental impact. However, adequate infrastructure is necessary for citizens to exercise their choice for those modes. This article presents a case study on the active mode infrastructural condition of a city which, as many others, privileged motorized modes in its growth during the 20th century. Using walking and cycling friendliness as evaluators of the infrastructural condition and a Geographic Information System environment as the calculational tool, an accessibility-based analysis was carried out that enables policymakers to identify the main issues affecting those modes and, most importantly, to pinpoint specific problems that are common to both modes. The methodological approach is scalable to any city size and is a decision-aid tool that can provide value mainly by identifying those common problems which can be efficiently addressed in future infrastructural improvements and maintenance actions. For the case study, common problems turn out to lay along large, distributor roads which fail to provide active travellers with adequate safety from traffic. Based on the results, a concrete intervention plan is proposed, for which a cost-benefit analysis was carried out.

Between the Necessity of Sanitation and the Urgency of Preparing Poor Areas in the Recife for the Climate Transition

Objective: The objective of this study is to examine the critical relationship between the absence or precariousness of essential public services and socio-environmental vulnerability, by analyzing communities of social interest located in hillside and wetland areas in the city of Recife. Theoretical Framework: The article explores the dilemma of intervening in two urgent issues involving poor communities in Recife: the provision of essential public basic sanitation services and/or mitigating actions to deal with the social and climatic challenges faced by the city's poorest and most vulnerable populations. Method: The study characterizes the predominance of urban, morphological and infrastructural conditions, including basic sanitation and the risks associated with the communities, based on the Geographic Information System for Poor Areas in the Recife Metropolitan Region (SIGAP-RMR). Results and Discussion: The results highlight a history of socio-spatial inequalities and environmental degradation, demonstrating that these two aspects are mutually aggravating factors. Originality/Value: Based on a reflection on climate transition, the study discusses how the lack of sanitation aggravates the adverse impacts of climate change on the residents of poor areas.

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ ИНСТРУМЕНТАРИЙ КОНТРОЛЬНО-АНАЛИТИЧЕСКОГО СОПРОВОЖДЕНИЯ МЕР ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЙ ПОДДЕРЖКИ ОРГАНИЗАЦИЙ РЫБОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОГО КОМПЛЕКСА

The measures of State Program “Fishery complex development” and Federal Project “Modernization and stimulation of fishery complex development” [1] are aimed at developing the fishery complexes by upgrading the fishing fleet, equipped with the necessary equipment for catching and processing fish, forming the infrastructure and social conditions for its functioning. At the same time, the analysis of dynamics of financial support volume of the State Program “Fishery complex Development” from 2022 to 2026 shows that its growth rate is variable - the smallest amount of budget funds was allocated in 2023 (growth rate was 84%), the largest amount is planned for 2025 (growth rate -134%). The growth rate of financial support of the Federal Project “Modernization and stimulation of fishery complex development” was 19% in 2023, 68% in 2024, in 2025 it will be 116%, and in 2026 it is planned to decrease to 107%. This situation is explained by the limited budgetary resources, in which the key issue is always the assessment of the priority of measures for which specific state support is allocated. Equipping economic entities of the fishery complex with new modern vessels, equipped with the necessary equipment for catching and processing of fish, requires substantial capital investments and a long period of time. The methods of analysis and control currently used to assess the effectiveness and priority of state support projects do not allow to fully assess their payback period and the possibility of creating value for consumers. Within the framework of the research, financial and economic modelling in combination with functional cost analysis is proposed to assess the effectiveness of the mechanism of investment quotas under the conventional name “quotas under the keel”. The construction of a financial and economic model of an investment project for the acquisition or construction of a ship makes it possible to design a long-term forecast of the development of efficiency of both an individual economic entity and the industry as a whole, allowing for strategic control of the project implementation, and the use of functional cost analysis - to search for reserves to reduce production costs and thus to respond to external challenges and threats in a timely manner at the expense of internal resources.

Impact of Rain Gauge Density on Flood Forecasting Performance: A PBDHM’s Perspective

The structures and parameters of physically-based distributed hydrological models (PBDHMs) can now be established and derived from remote-sensing data with relative ease. When engineers apply PBDHMs for flood forecasting in mesoscale catchments, they encounter varying rain gauge infrastructure conditions. Understanding model performance expectations under varying rain gauge density conditions is crucial for wide PDBHM construction. This study presents a case study of a PBDHM called the Liuxihe Model and examines six rain gauge density scenarios designed based on real-world data to assess the impact of rain gauge density on model flood forecasting performance. The study focuses on a mesoscale catchment in Jiangxi Province, China, covering an area of 2364 km2 with 62 rain gauges. The results indicate that models optimized under an adequate rain gauge density condition are less affected by gauge density changes, maintaining accuracy within a range of change. Compared to Kling–Gupta Efficiency (KGE) and Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE), the indicators absolute peak time error (APTE) and peak relative error (PRE) are less sensitive to variation in rain gauge density. The study further discusses how rain gauge density changes related to the interpolated rainfall surfaces and parameter optimization, hoping to facilitate the broader application of PBDHMs and offer insights for future practices.

Assessment of Parking Facilities in Public Areas: The Case of Keffi Town

The absence of adequate parking facilities in residential and public areas remains a significant issue in developing countries, often disrupting economic activities and environmental quality. In Keffi town, the increasing demand for parking exceeds the available supply, leading to congestion and inefficiency. This study evaluates the current public parking facilities, focusing on provision levels, infrastructure conditions, and management frameworks. Primary data were gathered using structured questionnaires and direct observations, with 328 valid responses analyzed through descriptive statistics. Results indicate that prolonged vehicle stays exacerbate congestion, such as at Nasarawa State University (32.8%) and Federal Medical Centre (29.1%). Parallel parking dominates (65.2%), and 91.6% of users rely on traditional search methods, highlighting the absence of modern parking guidance systems. The study recommends improving parking infrastructure with an emphasis on environmental standards, user convenience, safety, and the enforcement of effective regulatory frameworks.

Teachers’ Instructional Competence, Management Support, and School Infrastructure: Bases for Intervention Program in the Schools’ Division of Iloilo

This study evaluates the instructional competence of physical education teachers, the level of management support they receive, and the condition of school infrastructure in the Schools Division of Iloilo within the context of the K to 12 curriculum. It investigates how these factors influence the effectiveness of physical education programs and their impact on student outcomes, intending to develop an intervention program to improve educational quality. Using a descriptive-correlational research design, the study surveyed 375 MAPEH teachers through a researcher-designed questionnaire. The findings highlight significant relationships among teachers’ instructional competence, management support, and the state of school infrastructure, demonstrating their interdependence and importance in improving educational outcomes. The results emphasize the need for comprehensive policy reforms aimed at enhancing teacher training, ensuring adequate resource allocation, and upgrading school facilities. These measures are critical to creating a more supportive and effective physical education environment, ultimately leading to better academic and developmental outcomes for students. Keywords: Instructional competence, management support, school infrastructure, physical education, K to 12 curriculum

Provision of proper nutrition for prisoners of war

This article focuses on analyzing the issue of ensuring adequate nutrition for prisoners of war amid the armed conflict on the territory of Ukraine. Compliance with international humanitarian standards, particularly the 1949 Geneva Convention on the Treatment of Prisoners of War, is a critical aspect of humane treatment for individuals held in captivity. Providing prisoners of war with sufficient, high-quality, and diverse nutrition aims to support their health and prevent diseases associated with nutrient deficiencies. The article examines the regulatory and legal aspects of organizing nutrition for prisoners of war in Ukraine according to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 413, which establishes clear rules for the detention of prisoners of war, including their diet. Special attention is given to analyzing nutrition standards for different categories of prisoners of war based on their physical condition and workload, including those engaged in heavy labor and those undergoing medical treatment. The article also addresses standards for providing prisoners with drinking water and the organization of three hot meals per day. It explores the specifics of supplying special dietary meals to prisoners with medical needs. Additionally, the article analyzes practical aspects of involving prisoners of war in meal preparation as a means of supporting social connections and adapting to detention conditions. The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of the existing nutrition system for prisoners of war in Ukraine and its compliance with international humanitarian law standards. The authors emphasize the need to improve the regulatory framework and infrastructural conditions to ensure humane treatment of prisoners of war in accordance with the requirements of the Geneva Convention and recommendations of international organizations.

Penilaian Livability Perumahan Subsidi bagi Masyarakat Berpenghasilan Rendah di Kota Ambon

Subsidized housing is one of the main programs to provide livable housing that is affordable for low-income communities. However, often in development and environmental management, livability aspects are not paid attention to which can affect the level of community comfort and the quality of the housing itself. This condition can be seen in Bukit Hijau Urimessing Housing, which is currently the only subsidized housing in Ambon City. The condition of infrastructure and facilities such as roads, waste facilities and accessibility are still inadequate. The aim of this research is to measure the level of livability of Bukit Hijau Urimessing Housing, which is based on aspects of housing livability. This research uses a quantitative approach with quantitative descriptive analysis techniques and scoring analysis methods on 11 (eleven) housing livability indicators. The results of the analysis show that there are 5 (five) aspects with a level of livability included in the low category, namely the availability/quality of residential roads, access to transportation services, waste, drainage networks and security and safety of the residential environment. This condition reinforces the problems that often occur in the construction of subsidized housing, namely related to facility readiness, location not paying attention to accessibility and environmental management that is not optimalt.

Clinico-pathological characteristics and treatment outcome in non-small cell lung cancer in Greenland 2015-2020 - a comparison with the cohort from 2004 to 2010.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in Greenland. Since 2004, medical treatment of lung cancer has been available in Greenland. However, both diagnostic work-up and treatment logistics are hampered by the lack of medical services in smaller settlements, the infrastructure, and extreme arctic weather conditions. Clinico-pathological data and assessment of treatment outcome in lung cancer in Greenland have not been carried out since 2015. This study aims to provide an analysis of Greenlandic patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) from 2015 to 2020, compared to the cohort from the 2015 study. We focus on diagnostics, patient and treatment characteristics, and survival rates. Additionally, we include new data on treatment-related factors and diagnostic delays. Patients/material: Clinical-, pathological-, genomic data, tuberculosis status and survival were retrieved from the medical journal. A total of 163 patients were identified. Survival had improved in stage I, III, and IV, and early-stage disease was more often diagnosed as compared to the 2015 cohort. Molecular alterations and PD-L1 expressing tumors were comparable between Greenlandic and Danish patients. Diagnostic delay was a major concern. While NSCLC survival in Greenland has improved over the past decade, significant challenges remain. The trend towards diagnosing more stage IA-IIIA patients and the recent improvements in diagnostic and therapeutic options in Greenland are expected to translate into a better prognosis in the coming years. Addressing diagnostic delays and enhancing treatment options are crucial steps toward improving outcomes for NSCLC patients in Greenland.

Changes in Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Activities of Family Medicine Departments.

Institutional racism causes worse health outcomes for patients of racial/ethnic minority groups via limited access to health care, disparities in quality of care delivered, and lack of physician diversity. Increased attention to racism in 2020 led many medical institutions to examine their diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) efforts. In the context of increased national attention to health equity, this study sought to investigate the current status of DEI infrastructure by evaluating leadership and support related to DEI in family medicine departments in 2020 and 2021. We analyzed department and chair characteristics as well as departmental DEI infrastructure (ie, leadership and actions) from Association of Departments of Family Medicine survey data in 2020 (data collected from June to September 2020) and 2021 (data collected from September to December 2021). We performed multiple regression analyses to evaluate whether department characteristics or specific DEI activities were associated with increased DEI infrastructure in 2021 compared to 2020. Of the 165 department chairs sent the survey in both 2020 and 2021, 56 (33.9%) responded both years. Departments with a designated DEI leader increased from 42.9% in 2020 to 60.7% in 2021, but about 40% of departments lacked key supports for this position (ie, funding, staff support, and a pathway for advancement). Regression analysis did not demonstrate associations between independent variables and three measures of departmental DEI activities. This study demonstrates that designated leadership for DEI work increased in family medicine departments between 2020 and 2021.

Predictive Model for School Dropout in Chimborazo Province, Ecuador

Introduction: School dropout is a complex problem influenced by various factors, including disparities in educational quality, inadequate infrastructure, and adverse socio-cultural conditions. This phenomenon negatively impacts the social and economic development of the country. Despite the recent decrease in dropout rates in Ecuador, the problem remains significant. Objective: To develop predictive models, including linear regression and generalized linear models in R-studio, to forecast dropout rates and identify significant institutional and demographic factors. Method: A quantitative approach was adopted to analyze data from the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education for the periods 2009-2010 to 2023-2024. Data on enrollments, approvals, non-approvals, and dropouts were reviewed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Results: The results showed a decrease in dropout rates starting from the 2013-2014 academic year, although with significant fluctuations. Higher dropout rates were identified in public institutions and rural areas in the Sierra region, specifically in public institutions in Chimborazo province, accounting for 97.47% of the total dropouts, in contrast to students from the Coastal región. Additionally, a p-value of 0.073 was obtained in the linear models, so the null hypothesis was not rejected, suggesting that the residuals are approximately normal. Conclusions: The predictive models (LM and GLM) effectively estimated dropout rates in Chimborazo, with the GLM showing a slightly better fit. The type of institution and geographic location were significantly associated with dropout rates, highlighting the need for interventions targeting public institutions and rural areas. Strategies to reduce dropout rates should focus on improving conditions in these specific areas

Urgency of Strategic Environmental Assessment (KLHS) for Spatial Planning of Permanent Storage Activities of Radioactive Associated Minerals

By Presidential Regulation Number 60 of 2019 concerning the National Policy and Strategy for Nuclear and Radiation Safety, BAPETEN has a role in preparing a Strategic Environmental Assessment (KLHS) for national nuclear policies, plans, and programs. One of the KLHS prepared is for storing Radioactive Associated Minerals (MIR). However, because radioactive mixed mineral products are by-products of mineral operations and extraction, with the authority of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (ESDM), the preparation of the KLHS must be integrated into the regional government KLHS at the time of opening the mining area. This review proposes reasons for the importance of preparing a KLHS to determine the permanent location of MIR. The review research methodology consists of identifying regulations, screening for gaps in obstacles to current infrastructure conditions, and determining recommendations in preparing a KLHS in permanent storage. From the stages of identifying rules, it is known that determining spatial planning is required to prepare a KLHS. The screening gaps in infrastructure conditions show that the regional government still needs to gain knowledge capacity regarding the permanent storage of MIR. The results of this study recommend that BAPETEN can propose guidance and assistance in preparing KLHS to determine the spatial layout of the permanent storage location of MIR. BAPETEN must coordinate with the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources and the Ministry of Environment to integrate KLHS for permanent storage spatial layout and identify the contents in the KLHS related to environmental carrying capacity and capacity. Keywords: Permanent Storage, Strategic Environmental Assessment (KLHS), Spatial KLHS, Radioactive Associated Minerals (MIR)

Application of geospatial technology and decision model in the development of improved food security index

Most developing countries are currently experiencing a severe food security crisis. A good policy to mitigate food insecurity is dependent on accurate assessment. Therefore, an improved assessment of food situation is important in implementing food security measures. Existing food security assessments are limited in integrating localized variables, often needing more context-specific information. This study proposes a new food security index (Hybrid Food Security Index-HFSI), the Nigerian state was used as a case study. Data used include; food consumption, poverty levels, variability in food prices, inflation, climate variability data and the status of road infrastructure. The study also integrated a hybrid Multi-criteria Criteria Decision Model (MCDM) and geo-spatial technology. The geo-spatial presentation of food security across Nigeria shows that food security is generally better in the Southern part of the country than in the Northern region. Broadly, indicators’ performance primarily improves from the country’s North to South, which suggests that Northern states tend to be less food secure than Southern states. According to the Fuzzy-DEMATEL-ANP model, the Poverty level indicator significantly impacts the food security situation in all focused states, as it received the highest priority weight of 0.1487. The study recommends intensifying poverty alleviation programs to improve food security, and women’s development programs should be prioritized. This study provides policymakers and stakeholders with evidence-based assessments to address food security challenges in Nigeria.