Northeast Indian State Research Articles

Drug Addiction in Sikkim: A Sociological Study

<p><em>In contemporary society, the full-fledged impact of modernization and globalization, which has led to free movement of people, goods and money across the countries of the world, can be witnessed. This has also opened the economic opportunities among the individuals and the communities in the society, which has become the new of life. Society has changed over the years and activities of the people have undergone changes. Even the substances used for inebriation have changed corresponding with the dynamics of society. Traditionally used drugs, marijuana and cannabis, have been replaced by modern synthetic drugs. The proliferation of pharmaceutical industries, which manufactures narcotic drugs, has directly and indirectly encouraged the use and the abuse of the drugs due to the easy access in the market. The epidemic of illicit drug users in the global society has increased significantly and simultaneously drug use associated crimes as well in the society.</em></p><p><em>A drug is a biological substance, synthetic or natural, that is taken primarily for non-dietary needs, and it is a substance, which affects the functioning of mind and body or both. Globally according to UNODC estimate, in 2009 between, 149 and 272 people or 3.3% to 6.1% of the population aged 15-64 has used illicit substance once in previous year. Cannabis and Amphetamine Type Stimulants [ATS] are two important drugs which are commonly used world-wide.(World Drug Report,2010;pg.123) Within Asia, ATS ranks as the main drug abuse in Thailand, Japan, Republic of Korea, Philippines and also China, Myanmar and Indonesia are in the second rank according to United Nations of Development Countries [UNODC] in 2004. Heroin, Cocaine and other drugs kill around 0.2 million people each year and causes health problems with incurable diseases. (Changing Drug abuse patterns and law enforcement strategies;pg.-134) The European-Monitoring Center for Drug and Drug Addiction [EMCDDA] defines the problem of Drug use as injecting drug use as ‘injecting drug use or long duration regular use of opium, cocaine and amphetamines.’ World Health Organization [WHO] defines Drug Addiction as a ‘disease’ and the American Psychiatric Association defines drug abuse as the ‘illicit consumption of any naturally occurring of pharmaceutical substance for the purpose of changing the way, in which a person feels, thinks or behaves without understanding or taking into consideration the damaging physical and mental side effects that are caused.(World Drug Report,2012;pg.125-126).</em></p><p><em>Drug Abuse is a global phenomena and it is also abused in India. India is a diverse nation and is like many other nations afflicted by drug abuse and drug addiction among the youths in the society. Drugs like opium and cannabis were traditionally used by the people, which are taken as a pain reliever by the people. ‘Ganja was consumed to worship Hindu God, Lord Shiva, during the festival of ‘Shivratri’ in India.(B. Sundas, 2011;pg.50). According to a nation-wide survey spread over 13 states by a NGO, in collaboration with the Ministry of Women and Child Development found that 32.1% children below the age of 18had tasted bhang, ganja, heroin or other forms of narcotics. (P. Mehta, 2011) In 2008, 5.3 million Indians aged 12 and older had abused cocaine in any form and 1.1 million had abused LSD at least once in the year. In 2008,453,000 Indians aged 12 and older had abused Heroin at least once in the year. In 2008,25.8 million Indians aged 12 and older had abused marijuana at least once in the year. In 2008,850,000 Indians aged 12 and older had abused methamphetamine at least once in the year.(Ibid,pg. 34-40).</em></p><p><em>Northeast has been challenged by serious problem of Drug use by the youth. Nagaland and Manipur are the two states in Manipur are the two states in North-East India, which has the highest prevalence of Intravenous Drugs (IDUs). Even cultivation of opium is done in Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, and supplied to other parts of India. These are the easy routes of drug trafficking across the common borders of Myanmar and the three North-eastern States of India (Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland). There is illicit cultivation of opium and cannabis, the heroin and the amphetamines, and the pharmaceuticals are used as illicit drugs and trafficked in the North-east India. (Drug used in Northeastern States, India;pg.xiv).</em></p>

Determinants of Savings in Sukanya Samriddhi Account: Evidence from Tripura

The financial inclusion models that have been implemented successfully in various parts of India have not gained momentum in North East India. The inherent characteristics of the states in this region and the prominence of several informal financial systems are some of the reasons for the failure of the formal financial inclusion models. This study made an attempt to examine the determinants of savings under the Sukanya Samriddhi Account (SSA), a formal financial inclusion scheme advocated by the Government of India for the betterment of girl children. The study area comprised the eight districts of Tripura, one of the states of North East India. The data for the case study was collected through scheduled interviews with 225 respondents, who had a girl child below the age of 10 years. The results, arrived at through a statistical analysis, showed that the pivotal catalysts determining the decisions whether to invest in the SSA scheme were: gender, age, level of income, family size and income, financial literacy, uncertainty of income and planning for child’s education, marriage and house. The relevance of the finding of the study in terms of policy-making has been highlighted.

Find Out the Optimum Condition for a Pump Storage Hydro-Power Plant Using AHP & PSO

The year round insufficiency of water in rivers of Tripura (state of North-East India) is the main problem of hydro-power generation of this state. The only hydro-power station of the stale (Dombor Hydro-Power Plant) is presently in deadly condition. So a plant which can operate with fixed volume of water, is very much acceptable to pursuit this condition. So, pump storage hydro power plant is this type of plant which can operate according to the expected condition. But consumption of power during the pumping phase reduces the net output of PSP hydro-plant. So parametric estimation has been adopted to find the most beneficial & non beneficial parameters for PSP and how the efficiency changes with the variation of these parameters it is also observed here. Finally the optimum condition for maximum power generation has been developed from these estimations.

Molecular detection and genetic diversity of Babesia gibsoni in dogs in India

Babesia gibsoni is a tick borne intraerythrocytic protozoan parasite causing piroplasmosis in dogs and has been predominantly reported in Asian countries, including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Bangladesh and India. The present communication is the first evidence on the genetic diversity of B. gibsoni of dogs in India. Blood samples were collected from 164 dogs in north and northeast states of India and 13 dogs (7.9%) were found positive for B. gibsoni infection by microscopic examination of blood smears. Molecular confirmation of these microscopic positive cases for B. gibsoni was carried out by 18S rRNA nested-PCR, followed by sequencing. Nested-PCR for the 18S rRNA gene was also carried out on microscopically B. gibsoni negative samples that detected a higher percentage of dogs (28.6%) infected with B. gibsoni. Genetic diversity in B. gibsoni in India was determined by studying B. gibsoni thrombospondin-related adhesive protein (BgTRAP) gene fragments (855bp) in 19 isolates from four north and northeast states of India. Phylogenetic analysis of the BgTRAP gene revealed that B. gibsoni parasite in India and Bangladesh formed a distinct cluster away from other Asian B. gibsoni isolates available from Japan, Taiwan and Korea. In addition, tandem repeat analysis of the BgTRAP gene clearly showed considerable genetic variation among Indian isolates that was shared by B. gibsoni isolates of Bangladesh. These results suggested that B. gibsoni parasites in a different genetic clade are endemic in dogs in India and Bangladesh. Further studies are required for better understanding of the genetic diversity of B. gibsoni prevalent in India and in its neighbouring countries.

Biogenic synthesis of antioxidant, shape selective gold nanomaterials mediated by high altitude lichens

Biogenic synthesis of gold nanoparticles have been accomplished using dried biomass of two high altitude lichen species, collected from the alpine region of Eastern Himalaya in Arunachal Pradesh state of North East India, without addition of any external reducing or stabilizing chemicals. The nanoparticles were characterised by UV–visible, FT-IR spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The as-obtained gold nanoparticles showed surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band at ~535nm. The XRD study furnished evidence for the formation of face-centered cubic structure of gold nanomaterials. The nanoparticles produced with Acroscyphus sp. consisted of multiply twinned quasi-spherical and prismatic shapes while those accessed with Sticta sp. are exclusively multiply twinned. The biomatrix loaded gold nanomaterial exhibited pronounced antioxidant activity.

Improvement in higher education quality of the North-East University of India

The article traces the key enablers to improve the quality of higher education in all university-affiliated degree colleges in the North-East of India. The seven North-East Indian states, popularly known as ‘Seven Sisters’ are distinctly different from the other parts of the country in terms of the hostility of the geographic and socio-economic environment. As a pioneering attempt we have used the metrics of Measure phase under the Six Sigma Define Measure Analyze Improvement and Control (DMAIC) approach to identify the critically weak areas that need immediate attention in the higher education sector in a backward region. The study was conducted in two phases – Phase 1 determines the sampling plan. In the second phase of the study, using the Box plot technique, the study identifies the possible weak areas (sub-enablers) and weakest areas (critical domain) for improvement. In particular, while the entire North-East part of the country is characterised by adverse topography, a skewed rural-urban divide as well as erratic socio-political factors, tribal unrests, militant activities, our study focuses on providing a theoretical dimension to the abysmal quality and passing rates in such a hostile environment and suggested possible improvements.

Global Ambitions and Local Compulsions: Exploring the Paradoxes Confronting Meghalaya in North East India

Globalization has undoubtedly emerged as one of the leading characteristics of the contemporary world. On the one hand, it has ushered in a new and promising era marked by rapid movements of large volumes of money and the increased volume of trade and has led to a growing density of market relations resulting in faster growth and creating unprecedented new opportunities for sustainable development and poverty reduction. At the same time, it also implies increased risk, uncertainty and vulnerability because of the widely fluctuating flows of capital around the globe and unstable exchange rates. In the context of the above, the paper proposes to examine the situation in Meghalaya, a state located in North East India and argues that globalization which entails greater interaction among cultures has generated a feeling of insecurity among the indigenous population, thereby consolidating the urge for preserving the indigenous culture from being invaded by the powerful waves of globalization. Globalization has undoubtedly led to increased transnational flows such as migration. The enhanced volume of migration has already unleashed the forces of ethnic backlash in most states of northeast India. In the context of the above, the paper will focus on the impact of greater global investment possibilities and migration of labor on local communities in Meghalaya in terms of the perceptions of regional political parties and local pressure groups. It will also examine the contradictions arising out of the desire to explore opportunities to capture the benefits of globalization on the one hand and the compulsion to protect local identities and heritage on the other. The paper has been divided into five sections. The first section focuses on the development constraints in northeast India and the difficulties in the land acquisition process. The second section highlights the global investment potential in Meghalaya and examines local resistance to the same. The next section discusses some initiatives taken by the Government of Meghalaya to attract investment. The fourth section examines local perspectives on uranium mining in Meghalaya. The fifth section comments on the impact of migration in northeast India as a whole and Meghalaya in particular. The fifth and the final section summarize the concluding observations of the paper in terms of the contradictions emanating from the parallel processes of globalization and local protest movements.

Resource Use Efficiency in Milk Production in Mizoram State of North-East India

The present study was undertaken in Mizoram state to study resource use efficiency in milk production on sample households. Out of the eight districts in Mizoram, three districts were selected purposively based on milk production and cattle population. From each of the three districts, two blocks were selected randomly and from each of the selected block cluster of two to three villages were selected. A sample of 180 milk producing households were selected randomly from the selected villages during the year 2014–15. Linear, Cobb-Douglas and Semi-logs milk production functions were tried to study resource use efficiency. The Cobb-Douglas was found best fit keeping in view sign, significance of regression co-efficient and value of R2 for both crossbred and local cows. The regression coefficients of dry fodder and miscellaneous expenses were found significant for both the animal groups. It was observed that dry fodder and miscellaneous expenses were underutilised for crossbred cows and green fodder was underutilised in case of local cows indicating that use of more quantities of these inputs will further increase the productivity of milch cattle in the study area.

Language as a Catalyst to Identity Assertion among the Tribes of North East India

Language in the contemporary world has not only been a crucial instrument of identity assertion, but has also played an important role in shaping the politics of multilingual states like India. Recent trends show that while the dominant nationality in a state has sought to use language to assert its cultural and political hegemony over smaller nationalities, the latter have organized protest movements by mobilizing members of their own group for recognition of their language and linguistic identity. In northeast India, this phenomenon had important consequences for small linguistic communities and even led to the demand for new states for the protection of their linguistic rights. In 1960, the declaration of Assamese as the official language of Assam, a multilingual state of northeast India, caused widespread resentment among both the hill and plains tribes of Assam because this was perceived to be a threat to their linguistic identity. Similarly, the Bodos, the largest plains tribe of Assam, organized a movement for protection of the Bodo language against the Assamese linguistic hegemony. The proposed paper, therefore, seeks to examine the dynamics of linguistic assertion by smaller nationalities like the Khasis and the Bodos of northeast India.

Effectiveness of public agricultural extension services in Tripura state of North-East India

This paper analyses the effectiveness of the public agricultural extension services of the department of agriculture in Tripura state. Extension effectiveness was measured in three levels (input, process and outcome) by using 20 indicators. Information on organizational variables was collected from all the four District Head Offices (Office of the Deputy Director of Agriculture) of the Department of Agriculture in Tripura state. A structured interview schedule was used to collect data from the randomly selected 80 clienteles (farmers) and 80 extension personnel. The result shows that the total expenditure intensity was 3831.13(USD 68.11)/ha/year and expenditure intensity on extension activity was 2260.46 (USD 40.18)/ha/year, the technical manpower: cultivator ratio was very high i.e. 1: 1218 and clientele contact intensity was only 1 hr. 45 min./clientele/year. Whereas, extension service commitment and client accountability of the extension personnel was also higher but organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job performance, job competence index of the extension personnel was low. All the clientele were willing to pay nominally for extension services and the overall clientele satisfaction was 72.45. Based on the results of the study it is recommended to increase the technical manpower in the department and also increase collaboration with Non-Government Organizations NGOs), Self Help Groups (SHGs) and private organizations for extension programme implementation.

Farmers’ Satisfaction with the Public Agricultural Extension Services in Tripura State of North-East India

In India, the Department of Agriculture (DoA) in the state is the prime public extension service provider which undertakes regulatory function and also management of supplies and inputs. A study was conducted to assess the level of farmers’ (clientele) satisfaction on agricultural extension services of DoA. The study was conducted in Tripura state of North- East India during 2012. The required information was collected from 80 farmers (clientele) of the DoA using structured interview schedule. The findings of the investigation indicated that a majority of the clientele had expressed medium level of relevancy, quality, usefulness and customer (clientele) service satisfaction of the extension services provided by the Department of Agriculture. Based on the findings of the study, it was suggested that the department should provide relevant market information, inputs should be provided timely, extension personnel should be equipped with appropriate teaching materials and methods, the extension personnel should encourage farmers for developing farmers groups or Self-help Group for helping themselves. The research study was conducted by the first author as a thesis work to fulfill the partial requirements for M. Sc. (Agriculture) in Agricultural Extension degree programme.

A new species of the genus Thaicharmus Kovařík, 1995 (Scorpiones: Buthidae) from northeast India

A new species Thaicharmus guptai sp. nov. is described from the northeast Indian state of Tripura. The new species differs from the known members of the genus in the following set of morphological characters: large size (total length 45.6 mm); trichobothrium d2 is distal to i1 on femur; trichobothria est, em and et on the external surface of the patella do not form a straight line. Subaculear tubercle is absent. The movable finger of pedipalp chela has 12 cutting rows of denticles. The movable finger is much longer than the pedipalp patella. Number of pectinal teeth 20/19; pectines with distinct lamellae and fulcra. Two horn-like projections are present on the ventrolateral aspect of the metasomal segment V.

Genetic diversity and population structure of endangered Aquilaria malaccensis revealed potential for future conservation

The endangered Aquilaria malaccensis,is an important plant with high economic values. Characterization of genetic diversity and population structure is receiving tremendous attention for effective conservation of genetic resources. Considering important repositories of biological diversity, the genetic relationships of 127 A. malaccensis accessions from 10 home gardens of three states of northeast India were assessed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). Of the 1153 fragments amplified with four AFLP primer combinations, 916 (79.4%) were found to be polymorphic. Polymorphic information content (PIC) and marker index (MI) of each primer combination correlate significantly with the number of genotypes resolved. Overall, a high genetic diversity (avg. 71.85%) was recorded. Further, high gene flow (Nm: 3.37), low genetic differentiation (FST: 0.069) and high within population genetic variation (93%) suggests that most of the genetic diversity is restricted within population. Neighbour joining (NJ), principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and Bayesian-based STRUCTURE grouped all the accessions in two clusters with significant intermixing between populations, therefore, revealed that two genetically distinct gene pools are operating in the A. malaccensis populations cultivated in home gardens. Based on the various diversity inferences, five diverse populations (JOH, FN, HLF, DHM and ITN) were identified, which can be potentially exploited to develop conservation strategies for A. malaccensis.

Multivariate analysis of morphometric traits of three different indigenous cattle populations from North East states of India

In the present study an attempt has been made to differentiate three cattle populations of North East states of India i.e. Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur based on morphometric traits, using canonical discriminant analysis to see whether they are similar or distinct. Data consisted of eight different morphometric traits of 383 indigenous cows from Tripura (136), Mizoram (71) and Manipur (176). Morphometric traits included body length, height at withers, heart girth, paunch girth, face length, ear length, horn length and tail length without switch. All the morphometric traits under study differ significantly in these populations except horn length. All the traits, values were lower in Tripura cows than that of Mizoram and Manipur cows. The stepwise discriminant analysis showed that height at withers, body length, ear length, tail length without switch, paunch girth and face length were the most discriminating traits in these three cattle populations. The pair wise Mahalanobis distances between Tripura and Mizoram, Tripura and Manipur and Mizoram and Manipur were 9.72578, 5.72089 and 4.65239, respectively, and significant. The dendogram showed that there are two clusters; cluster one includes Manipur and Mizoram cows and cluster two Tripura cows those are clearly separated from cluster one. The Individual assignment of different cattle populations by the cross-validation classification revealed 84.13% of Tripura cows, 82.09% of Mizoram cows and 79.87% Manipur cows were assigned correctly into their respective population. Based on the present study we cannot conclude that they are three different distinct breeds. However, the present information on the three cattle populations could therefore be exploited in designing appropriate strategies for their management and conservation.

Who makes it click? understanding the stakeholders in agricultural innovation systems in tripura state of India

The Agricultural Innovation System (AIS) is a network of organizations, enterprises and individuals that focuses on bringing new products, processes and forms of organization into economic use, together with the institutions and policies that affect their behaviour and performance. In the small North East Indian state of Tripura, System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has grown to develop into an innovation system where various stakeholders have come together to make the state self-sufficient in food grains. The present study was conducted to understand the characteristics of the leading stakeholders of the SRI innovation system in the state, their competence, relationship among each other and the enabling environment. Data was collected through a structured interview schedule and competence scale. Actor Linkage Matrix and descriptive statistical parameters were used to analyse data. The work of the administrative units at grass root levels to disseminate an agricultural technology is unprecedented. In addition, the contact between the research institutes and the farmers’ needs to be improved and so does their exposure to other SRIpracticing parts of the country. The lessons learnt from the SRI innovation systems in Tripura, if applied to other similar crops and other similar parts of the country as well as in the developing world, would definitely prove to be a model for development and prosperity. Tropical Agricultural Research Vol. 25 (4): 579 – 594 (2014)

Livelihood Status of Tribal People Practicing Shifting (Jhum) Cultivation in Tripura State of North-East India

Jhum or shifting cultivation is the dominant land-use practice of northeastern region of India. Jhum cultivation systems are generally productive, making efficient use of resources, ensuring ecological sustainability and food security, thus providing a social safety net for local communities. It is an ecologically and economically viable system of agriculture as long as population densities are low and Jhum cycles (fallow period) are long enough to maintain ecological balance. Population explosion and increased demand for cultivable land with the emergence of new generation of youth cultivators have resulted in reduction of the cultivation cycle. This has seriously affected the local livelihoods and environmental sustainability in many pockets of the region. This study was conducted during 2012-13 in Gomati district of Tripura state in North-East India to understand the livelihood status of tribal people practicing Jhum. Data were collected using structured interview scheduled for 140 tribal farmers. The results revealed that the highest proportion (39.3%) of tribal farmers have low livelihood status followed by medium (36.4%) and high (24.3 %) livelihood status. Education, family size, number of family members involved in Jhum, area under Jhum, annual income, fallow period, livestock possession, material possession, and extension participation had positive significant relationships with the livelihood status of the study sample and thus, could be manipulated to improve the livelihood status of tribal people. Tropical Agricultural Research Vol. 25 (3): 316-326 (2014)

Large mammal use of protected and community-managed lands in a biodiversity hotspot

In large parts of the biodiversity-rich tropics, various forest governance regimes often coexist, ranging from governmental administration to highly decentralized community management. Two common forms of such governance are protected areas, and community lands open to limited resource extraction. We studied wildlife occurrences in the north-east Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, where the Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (EWS) is situated adjacent to community lands governed by the Bugun and Sherdukpen tribes. We conducted transect-based mammal sign surveys and camera trapping for mammals (>0.5 kg), and interviewed members of the resident tribes to understand their hunting practices and causes of wildlife declines. Interviews indicated hunting-mediated declines in the abundances of mammals such as the tiger Panthera tigris, gaur Bos gaurus and river otters Lutrogale and Aonyx species. Larger species such as B. gaurus were much more abundant within EWS than outside of it. Community-managed lands harbored smaller bodied species, including some of conservation importance such as the red panda Ailurus fulgens, clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa and golden cat Pardofelis temminckii. Our findings show that protected areas may have important non-substitutive values but adjoining community-managed lands may also have important conservation values for a different set of species.

Pattern of Drug Use and Associated Behaviors Among Female Injecting Drug Users From Northeast India: A Multi-Centric, Cross-Sectional, Comparative Study

Background: Studies from developed countries document the presence of injecting drug use among females and significantly higher vulnerabilities and risks as compared with male injecting drug users (IDUs). Studies comparing vulnerabilities and drug use patterns between female and male IDUs are not available for developing countries. Objectives: The aim of the study was to assess the drug use pattern and related HIV vulnerabilities among female IDUs and compare these findings with those from male IDUs from four states of Northeast India. Method: The study used data collected as part of a nationwide study of drug use pattern and related HIV vulnerabilities among IDUs. Ninety-eight female and 202 male IDUs accessing services from harm reduction sites across the four states of Northeast region of India were chosen through random sampling methodology. Drug use pattern, injecting practices, and knowledge of HIV were assessed using a structured questionnaire. Results: Significantly higher proportion of female IDUs was uneducated, unemployed, reported their occupation as sex workers, and switched to injecting drug use faster as compared with male IDUs. Female IDUs practicing sex work differed significantly from those who did not with respect to frequency of daily injections, choice of drugs injected, and concomitant use of non-injecting drugs. More than half of female IDUs initiated sharing within the first month of injecting. Conclusions: The study demonstrates that female IDUs differ from male IDUs in their drug use pattern, initiation into injection as well as injecting behavior, which would be an important consideration during designing of female-specific interventions.

Subsidized Microfinance and Sustainability of Self-Help Groups (SHGs): Observations from North East India

In India, the subsidized scheme is one of the variants of microfinance introduced by the Central Government and similar subsidy based microfinance schemes have also been introduced by other donor agencies. The decadal growth of the number of subsidized SHGs and loan size under these schemes indicate the fact that SHGs are more attracted towards subsidy. However, the key question that has been asked in many research studies is about the relationship of subsidy with that of long-term sustainability of MFIs/SHGs. With the help of randomly selected 150 subsidized SHGs operating in one of the eight states of North East India, that is, Meghalaya, the study established that subsidy has negatively influenced the long-term sustainability of the SHGs. In case the subsidy is withdrawn, the SHGs would be less sustainable-operationally as well as financially. Furthermore, the withdrawal of subsidy would increase the onward lending rate manifold so as to discourage the members to take any loan from the group, thus threatening the entire program.

Subsidized Microfinance and Sustainability of Self-Help Groups (SHGs): Observations from North East India

In India, the subsidized scheme is one of the variants of microfinance introduced by the Central Government and similar subsidy based microfinance schemes have also been introduced by other donor agencies. The decadal growth of the number of subsidized SHGs and loan size under these schemes indicate the fact that SHGs are more attracted towards subsidy. However, the key question that has been asked in many research studies is about the relationship of subsidy with that of long-term sustainability of MFIs/SHGs. With the help of randomly selected 150 subsidized SHGs operating in one of the eight states of North East India, that is, Meghalaya, the study established that subsidy has negatively influenced the long-term sustainability of the SHGs. In case the subsidy is withdrawn, the SHGs would be less sustainable-operationally as well as financially. Furthermore, the withdrawal of subsidy would increase the onward lending rate manifold so as to discourage the members to take any loan from the group, thus threatening the entire program.