Subsidies Research Articles

APCs in a diamond wonderland

The economy of open access (OA) publishing has been a topic of intensive research over the last two decades. Dichotomies between the so-called 'green' and 'gold' models, or between fee-based and non-fee-based gold models, the latter known as the diamond model, have been addressed from diverse perspectives. However, some critical insights that would enable a thorough understanding of publishers’ and editors’ decision-making and provide a foundation for developing future evidence-based public policies are still missing.In recent years, more importance has been given to the diamond OA model, and the European research area has recognized its potential to bring change and possibly transform the scholarly publishing landscape. The 2021 EC-funded OA Diamond Journals Study (Bosman et al., 2021) reveals that while Europe is rich in OA Diamond journals, they are far from all being included in the DOAJ, nor are they equally distributed across scholarly disciplines and European regions. The study indicates the dominance of large commercial and APC-based publishers in Western Europe contrasted to the prevalence of smaller, diamond OA publishers in Central and Eastern Europe. Yet, subsequent research by Laakso and Multas (2023) shows that such a distribution across European regions could oversimplify a more diverse landscape. Their bibliometric-based analysis indicates that within regions, countries can vary significantly in their publishing ecosystems, based on several factors: the type (and size) of dominant publishers, the availability of country-level public funding mechanisms for scholarly journals, and the availability of common publishing infrastructures. There are examples of countries from different European regions that appear to be successful in building a thriving and sustainable national diamond publishing ecosystem. However, some publishers adopt an APC-based business model even in such predominantly diamond ecosystems. Our study will be twofold: a comparative investigation will establish the share of APC journals in several dominantly diamond countries: Croatia, Finland, France, Norway, Serbia, and Spain. Although limited in geographical scope, the intended sample will strive for complete coverage of OA journals: authors from each country will provide comprehensive national addenda to DOAJ lists. The publicly available information on the websites of all identified OA journals issued by the publishers located in the countries mentioned above will be inspected for evidence of APC schemes (any fees or charges required of authors or their institutions for submitting or publishing a paper in a journal). The study will address the following research questions: 1. What is the share of journals charging APCs at the time of research (among all OA journals in the country, and especially among journals receiving public subsidies, if there are such subsidies available)?; 2. What is the range, median and mode of APC costs?; 3. Is the existence of APCs and their cost related to the type of a journal publisher or owner, the scholarly discipline, or the fact that the journal is indexed inestablished international indices and databases?The insight into the incidence of APC-based journals and the context in which they are introduced will be complemented with a qualitative analysis of APC descriptions. This is expected to reveal some of the reasons for their introduction and possibly show that smaller publishers could resort to some local and nonstandard mechanisms. It will answer additional research questions: 4. Are there any specificities of the APC mechanisms among the analysed journals (waivers, discounts, membership fees, etc.)?, and 5. How transparent are journals about their APCs? (What are the terms used for APCs in different languages? Are they listed in their DOAJ records? Is it explained what they are charged for and how the funds are used?).The results are expected to deepen the existing knowledge about the diversity and sustainability of OA ecosystems.

АРХІТЕКТУРНІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ МАЛОПОВЕРХОВОЇ ТИПОВОЇ ЖИТЛОВОЇ ЗАБУДОВИ 1939-1955-Х РОКІВ

Architectural features of typical low-rise residential buildings in the period 1939-1955 in ukraine are considered. It was noted that it was at this time that the mass construction of housing for the population in Ukraine was actively developing during industrialization, consolidation of villages (creation of «agricultural towns») and post-war reconstruction. Such typical housing was characteristic of many cities and towns during these years and reflected the spirit and needs of the time. After the war, the main emphasis was placed on the restoration of damaged buildings and on the construction of temporary wooden housing facilities for industrial workers. However, already in the mid-1950s, the construction of low-rise residential complexes developed, which was financed by industrial enterprises and other organizations. A study of archival materials on this topic was conducted, the architectural style, materials, constructions of buildings of that period were considered. Examples of existing residential buildings of the 1940s to the 1950s in Lviv and the Lviv region are presented. The planning of typical housing after the Second World War in Ukraine was based on several general principles aimed at restoring the housing stock, providing comfortable conditions for residents and rational use of available resources. The importance of modernizing such buildings in order to improve their functionality and energy efficiency was noted. Useful in this matter is the use of foreign practice, where extensive experience in the reconstruction of existing buildings built according to standard projects has been accumulated. Especially important for Ukraine are the methods and principles of renewal of urban residential buildings, which were developed in the countries of Eastern Europe, there are state reconstruction programs that provide for the allocation of state subsidies and special credit terms for their implementation.

Does green innovation facilitate firms' access to trade credit?

Employing a large sample of Chinese firms, this study examined the influence of corporate green innovation on firms' access to trade credit. The results indicated a positive association between green innovation and firms' capability to access trade credit, suggesting that suppliers value firms' green innovation capabilities. This relationship was strengthened after the implementation of the new Environmental Protection Law (EPL) in 2015, which enhanced the value of green innovation. The findings remained robust to several robustness tests. The results suggest that green innovation helps firms access trade credit through better environmental, social, and governance (ESG) scores and more state subsidy channels and plays a more pronounced role for financially constrained firms, non-state-owned enterprises, firms with lower bargaining power, and firms located in regions with better intellectual property rights protections. Green innovation is valuable for future corporate growth and shareholder value. Overall, this study reveals the value of green innovation through informal corporate financing.

Utilization of a public subsidy scheme for dental care services among socially vulnerable citizens out of labor in Copenhagen, Denmark

Objective Addressing social inequality in oral health and access to dental care is a global concern. This study aims to describe the utilization of a public subsidy scheme targeting vulnerable individuals out of labor in Copenhagen municipality (2013–2018) and to identify key characteristics of individuals eligible to apply. Material and Methods Data from Copenhagen municipality were combined with data from population and health registers. Employing logistic regression analyses, we examined the association between demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related characteristics and (1) having applied, (2) being granted, and (3) using the subsidy. Results The study included 65,174 individuals aged 18–65. Of these 10,369 (15.9%) applied for subsidies, submitting a total of 18,529 applications. Overall, 83% of the applications were granted and 85% were used. Significantly increased odds of applying for subsidies were observed among individuals receiving social benefits non-stop over the past year versus none (odds ratio [OR] = 15.45, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 14.24–16.76), aged 50–65 versus 18–29 years (OR = 4.41, CI = 4.15–4.69), and having combined indicators of social vulnerability versus none (OR = 2.90, CI = 2.73–3.07). Conclusions While the utilization of the public subsidy scheme is low, individuals who apply are likely to be granted a subsidy and use it. Vulnerability was associated with greater utilization of the scheme, yet a substantial portion of those at risk of poor oral health did not take advantage of it.

Sustainability pathways in European waste management for meeting circular economy goals

This study explores trends in recycling rates and municipal solid waste landfilling to construct a circularity index (CI) forecasted up to 2035. This projection is contrasted with the pathways that countries must adopt to attain set targets. We further estimate the impact of the CI on factors such as sustainability performance, innovation, commodity trade balance, and waste reduction. Moreover, we provide policy implications useful for designing industrial and environmental strategies, including accelerating permit approval times for waste treatment facilities, introducing more flexibility in state aid rules, empowering service users or waste generators, implementing tax credits, and leveraging specialized funds. These strategies are aimed at supporting the recycling industry to stimulate convergence and achieve circular economy objectives.

Adherence to recommended vaccination policies for pre- and post-solid organ transplantation patients: A national questionnaire survey in Japan

BackgroundPre-transplant vaccination is recommended for patients undergoing solid organ transplantation (SOT). While appropriate vaccination protocols are implemented at some facilities, transplantation is sometimes performed with inadequate preoperative vaccine management. Vaccination rates vary across facilities, but those of SOT centers in Japan have never been investigated. This study aimed to conduct a nationwide questionnaire survey to assess pre- and post-transplant vaccination policies among SOT facilities in Japan. MethodsThe survey was conducted from September to November 2022. All registered (n = 221) solid organ (namely, the lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, heart, and small intestine) transplant facilities were asked to complete a web-based survey. ResultsThe survey response rate was 70.2 %. Live and inactivated vaccines were recommended at 64.9 % and 68.9 % of the responding facilities, respectively. The following vaccines were incorporated into the vaccination protocols of facilities: pneumococcal vaccine, 31.7 % (13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine) and 65.4 % (23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine); hepatitis B virus vaccine, 67.3 %; severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccine, 73.1 %; influenza vaccine, 73.1 %; and zoster vaccines, 23.1 %. The reasons for unresponsiveness to vaccinations included inadequate time before transplantation (60.3 %), cost burden (41.1 %), high number of vaccinations (21.9 %), no recognition of the need for vaccination (17.9 %), and the requirement to explain the need for vaccination (15.2 %). ConclusionsOur study revealed gaps in vaccination practices across nationwide facilities in Japan. The findings indicate the importance of promoting scheduled efficiency and encouraging the national health system to reduce vaccine costs with the support of public subsidies.

EU Competition Law Developments in the Aviation and Space Sectors from 1 January to 31 July 2023

From 1 January to 31 July 2023, there have been several developments in the aviation and space sectors. The European Commission is currently reviewing the Korean Air/Asiana merger. Meanwhile, it approved the Fortress Investment Group/Air Investment/JV and Inmarsat/ Viasat mergers. A considerable number of cases were brought against the Commission to challenge its decisions in the field of state aid, in large part by Ryanair. The ECJ rejected the appeal by American Airlines in American Airlines/Commission & Delta. Lastly, the UK CMA and CAA published a joint open letter to airport operators. competition, developments, aviation sector, space sector, European Commission, mergers, aviation law, space law

Mobility-as-a-Service and the role of multimodality in the sustainability of urban mobility in developing and developed countries

Mobility as a service (MaaS) is an emerging framework that integrates multiple transport services into a single and intuitive platform. This paper contrasts the urban passenger transport markets in developed versus developing economies to understand the challenges of integrating mobility services using the MaaS framework, with a focus on decarbonization and sustainability as societal goals. In addition, we conducted a Life Cycle Assessment of carbon emissions and energy requirements of travel alternatives in the city of Santiago, Chile, to shed light on the effects of multimodality as an environmental tool. A summary of findings follows. Data sharing and open data are new in developing countries, and thus more investment in data infrastructure is required so that MaaS can leverage digital technology and network optimization. If the scalability of MaaS is an open question in developed countries, it is more so in developing countries, owning to institutional and financial constraints that are present in the latter. The lack of public subsidies to support formal public transport is a key limitation for the implementation of MaaS schemes and multimodal frameworks in the developing world. Regarding formality, in countries with an informal public transport sector, a potential implementation of MaaS will be spatially constrained to those locations where public transport operates formally and frequently (BRT and rail lines), limiting its spatial coverage and posing social equity issues. In countries with scarce or no public funds available for the transport sector, MaaS could be used as a catalyst for a broad environmental and equity-seeking transport pricing reform which requires a direct involvement of public sector in both regulation and financial backing. We conclude that the formalization and general improvement of the public transport sector, the regulation of shared-mobility platforms including the formalization of the work of drivers, and the setting of proper pricing and subsidization instruments in the direction of internalizing the social costs of motorized traffic, are all prerequisites for any MaaS system that aims to improve economic efficiency, social equity, and sustainability.

Increased Cattle Feeding Precision from Automatic Feeding Systems: Considerations on Technology Spread and Farm Level Perceived Advantages in Italy.

Automation reduces the impact of farming on climate change and helps farmers adapt to its financial impact. Automatic feeding systems (AFSs) increase the ruminant's feeding precision and ease operators' workload. Such systems exist on a spectrum, requiring varied levels of operator support and installation complexity. A recent survey on farmers pointed out that those already running an AFS and those willing to buy one appreciate its ease of use, the resulting animal welfare, and the resulting overall benefits (increased production, farm profitability, and reduced feed waste). Whether technologically complex or not, studies have confirmed the benefits that farmers perceive to be underlying the remarkable reduction in the environmental impact of feeding operations (AFSs are electrically powered), the increase in animal welfare resulting from reduced conflicts around accessing the feed bunk, and the constant availability of fresh feed. However, their introduction should follow accurate and holistic structural and economic planning for existing and newly built facilities. The availability of public subsidies plays an essential role in pushing farmers to adopt the most modern digital technologies, whose benefits may even increase when farmers couple them with interconnected sensors to monitor animals' physiological states.

Revisiting the standing debate before the EFTA Court through the lens of post-Lisbon EU devlopments regarding locus standi

The Lisbon Treaty broadened and relaxed the standing requirements before the EU Court of Justice by adding a third class of acts amenable to judicial review. In the meantime, the EU has moreover been found in breach of the Aarhus Convention twice for shortcomings in access to justice for environmental organisations. Hence, the Aarhus Regulation, which implements the Aarhus Convention at Union level, was revised in 2021, and possible further amendments with regard to state aid decisions are being examined at the moment. The current standing requirements before the EFTA Court by contrast still reflect the situation prevailing in the European Union before those EU pillar evolutions. This article revisits four judgments of the EFTA Court in light of these developments and analyses how the EFTA Court has dealt with the existing discrepancies before, and might or might not be able to deal with them in the future.

Industrial Policies, Competition, and Efficiency: The Need for State Aid Control

Abstract This paper contributes to the current debate on industrial policies, by discussing the potential scope and design principles of efficiency-enhancing industrial policies and providing a framework of assessment based on the European experience with State aid control. It argues four main points. First, there is scope for efficiency-enhancing industrial policies that address well-defined market failures. Second, the design of any industrial policy must achieve its objective in the most efficient way possible, in particular avoiding unnecessary distortions to competition. Third, European Union (EU) State aid control rules, as part of competition policy, reflect the economic principles of efficiency-enhancing industrial policies and provide a blueprint that could be applied more broadly to improve the design of industrial policies. Fourth, the pressure from industrial policies of non-EU governments comes with risks of global subsidy races that would produce a suboptimal outcome for all. Some limiting principles must therefore be found. We then illustrate how State aid control can contribute to a more efficient design of climate and industrial policies, contributing to a more efficient green transition, preserving competitive markets, and fostering industrial competitiveness.

Legal regime stimulating economic activities: Convergence of Ukrainian legislation with EU law based on SDGs

The purpose of the research is to substantiate ways to improve Ukrainian legislation, defining the features of the functioning of individual elements of SLREA, which will facilitate the achievement of SDGs. The study is based on a review of scientific literature dedicated to specific elements of SLREA (public procurement and state aid), Ukrainian legislation, and specific EU legal acts regarding the application of certain stimulating measures to achieve SDGs. It is argued that, compared to the institution of public procurement, the institution of state aid exhibits a significantly lower degree of actualization and integration into the legal framework supporting SDGs. It is substantiated that the modernization of Ukrainian legislation in the field of state aid should occur based on the model of legal regulation of the state aid system in the EU on the principles of SDGs. The development of SLREA in the context of adapting Ukrainian legislation to EU law should involve the integration of SDGs into the legal toolkit of such a regime.

Problems of economic effi ciency of state farms in 1940–1952 (based on materials of declassifi ed archive materials)

The article, based on archival sources that have been under the heading of secrecy for many years, analyzes the problems of economic efficiency of Soviet farms (state farms) in the first years after the end of World War II. The huge human and material losses suff ered by agriculture predetermined the diffi culties of the restoration period. Analysis of various statistics showed the following results. The yield of feed, technical and grain crops grew weakly, it was not possible to significantly increase the number of livestock. The increase in wages on state farms was not accompanied by an increase in labor productivity. Despite the improvement in the technical equipment of state farms, it was not possible to achieve the application of the achievements of agronomic science; signifi cant losses were observed in harvesting. The existing system of pricing agricultural products gave rise to a significant difference in the planned and actual cost, which, in turn, exceeded government prices. The most important mechanism for eliminating this discrepancy was the subsidy of state farms at the expense of budgets of different levels. More than 80 % of agricultural enterprises were on state subsidies, of which about 60% of farms had losses that could not even compensate for the allocated funds. At the same time, the state received economic benefi ts from the activities of state farms. The funds allocated to finance the activities of state farms were half as much as the state gained from the sale of agricultural products. Despite certain successes in agricultural production, state farms were unable by the beginning of the 1950-ies to increase labor productivity, significantly increase yields and multiply livestock, actively implement the achievements of agronomic science and rationally use technology.

7.C. Workshop: Health for all Policies: The co-benefits of intersectoral action

Abstract The objective of this roundtable discussion will be to provide the arguments and evidence for increased intersectoral action to achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Country responses to the COVID-19 pandemic have demonstrated that large scale intersectoral action for health is possible- if the policy issue is of high importance and sufficiently consensual. Most countries have implemented measures preventing disease transmissions, adjusting health systems, controlling borders and mobility, redirecting the economy, and securing civil protection. To this end, heads of government and their minister of health are working closely with all other ministries, departments, and sectors including social affairs, the home office, foreign affairs, research and education, transport, agriculture, business, and state aid. The problem this panel addresses is how to keep this invaluable intersectoral work flourishing long after the COVID-19 pandemic has passed. The framework of and the commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) offers an opportunity to reinforce action on health- but also to go beyond the Health in All Policies (HiAP) concept and towards a greater commitment to co-benefits. HiAP has introduced the idea that co-benefits from other sectors to health are valuable; however, the concept neglects the focus on co-benefits that arise from health or health systems to other sectors. Health for all Policies (HfAP) builds on HiAP in that it also Identifies co-benefits from health or health systems to other sectors. This bi-directional relationship can strengthen the case for investing in health, and emphasizes the contribution of health and health systems to societal wellbeing. In this panel, the basic question we are asking is: How can we better understand and communicate the health effects and co-benefits that intersectoral action can produce? To do this the panel draws on and makes a case for changing the argument about intersectoral action, from one focusing on health and health sector as the main beneficiary to one based on co-benefits, focusing on benefits for all sectors. It makes the case for a Health for All Policies approach, one that focuses on co-benefits between sectors. Format This will be a roundtable discussion where a brief keynote will be given on the concept of co-benefits and Health for All policies. The rest of the roundtable will be interactively facilitated and cover the economic argument for co-benefits and then, to demonstrate these co-benefits and spark audience engagement, three SDGs that speak clearly to the conferences theme of our food, our health our earth will be given the spotlight. These include: SDG 11 sustainable cities and communities, SDG 8 Decent work and economic growth and SDG 13 climate action. This workshop is based on a comprehensive study that has produced a Lancet article, a policy brief and we will be presenting the final results from our forthcoming manuscript. Key messages • The health for all policies concept can strengthen the case for investing in health and achieving the SDGs. • Intersectoral collaboration and action is key to producing co-benefits. Speakers/Panelists Scott Greer University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA Luigi Siciliani University of York, York, UK Michelle Falkenbach European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, Brussels, Belgium Andrea Schmidt Austrian Public Health Institute, Vienna, Austria Roshanak Mehdipanah University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

Subsidization of public transit service under double moral hazard

This paper aims to explore incentive issues and characteristics of optimal contract schemes for subsidizing public transit services under double moral hazard, which refers to situations where both the regulator and the operator face incentives to engage in opportunistic behavior due to information asymmetry in the provision of public transit service. This specific aspect of the regulator-operator interrelationship has not been thoroughly investigated in the existing literature. To address this gap, we utilize principal-agent theory and develop a non-cooperative game-theoretic model to analyze the relationship between the regulator (the principal) and the operator (the agent). Through backward induction, we examine the first-best equilibrium (without moral hazard) and second-best equilibrium (under double moral hazard) solutions. Numerical analysis based on a linear contract reveals some key characteristics of the optimal subsidy contract arrangements. Our findings reveal that under double moral hazard, both the regulator and the operator only exert their second-best efforts. The result analysis shows that while higher incentives can reduce the effort required by the regulator, they can also induce the operator to work harder. The marginal effort utilities of the two parties have distinct impacts on determining the optimal sharing rule. Furthermore, we illustrate how the interaction dynamics of the efforts exerted by the two involved parties vary with the sharing rule. Our study extends the current literature by shedding light on the optimal incentive arrangements and contractual requirements for public transport subsidy contracts when considering the double moral hazard issue.

How the Financing Source Affects a Film’s Box Office. The Value of Subsidies and International Co-Production on the Polish Market

ABSTRACT The film industry can be a high-profit business, but it also comes with high financial risk. Since film production requires large investments, producers and investors are looking for clues on how to predict a film’s financial success. This study identifies the relationship between two potential funding sources and a film’s box office score. We compile a variety of data and analyses to increase the value of information in the decision-making process. Our main contribution is to define the relationship between the source of financing for the production (public subsidies and international co-production) and the success of the film. The research shows that while the diversity of sources may have an impact on the size of the budget, not necessarily on the box office of the film. Moreover, comedy was the only genre to significantly affect the box office revenues.

Examining the Effect of Income-Based Inequalities and Dental Service Provision on Dental Service Utilization among Older Australians: A Multiple Mediation Analysis.

Public service provision is one of the keys to reducing inequalities in the utilization of dental services. Given the increase in the aging population, there should be a focus on older adults' oral health. However, this is often overlooked. This study investigates the effectiveness of public services in reducing income-related inequalities in dental service utilization among older South Australians. A multiple counterfactual mediation analysis using the ratio of mediator probability weighting approach was used to explore the proposed mediation mechanism using a South Australian population of older adults (≥65 y). The exposure variable in the analysis was income, and the mediators were concession cards and the last dental sector (public or private). The outcome variable was the time of last dental visit. Half of the older adults with high income (≥$40,000) owned a concession card, and 10% of those who attended public dental services belonged to this group. Interestingly, only 16.3% of the study participants had visited the public dental sector at their last dental appointment. Results showed a negligible indirect effect (odds ratio [OR], 0.99; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.85-1.05) and a significant direct effect (OR, 3.09; 95% CI, 2.24-4.87). By changing the potential outcome distributions to the counterfactual exposure distributions and taking the mediators' distribution as a counterfactual exposure distribution, the odds of dental visits occurring before the past 12 mo approximately tripled for low-income compared to high-income individuals. Income inequalities were associated with relatively delayed dental visits in older South Australians, and provision of public services could not improve this pattern. This might happen due to inequitable access to concession cards and public services. A review of policies is required, including addressing income inequalities and implementing short-term approaches to improve service utilization patterns in older South Australians. The findings of this study can enable policymakers for informed decision-making about the provision of public dental services for older Australians. This study emphasizes the importance of reviewing the current public dental services and subsidies and implementing short-term approaches to reduce income inequalities for older Australians.

Spatial spillovers and the effects of fiscal stimulus: evidence from pandemic-era federal aid for state and local governments

ABSTRACT We analyse whether US federal aid to state and local governments impacted economic activity through either direct or cross-state spillover effects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Deploying an instrumental-variables framework rooted in the funding advantage of states that are over-represented in Congress, we find that federal assistance had significantly less impact on state and local government employment, as well as broader measures of economic activity, than estimates from prior crisis responses would imply. The modest employment impacts we find stem largely from the direct effect of states’ own aid allocation, as opposed to spillovers across state lines. These findings point to an important role for variations in fiscal policy transmission mechanisms, namely that cross-state spillovers are less likely to be important when some of the key mechanisms for such spillovers, like robust interjurisdictional supply chains and patterns of consumption, are muted or shut down.

Military wealth: How money shapes Indigenous‐state relations among Canadian rangers

AbstractPresented as the eyes, ears, and voice for the Canadian Armed Forces in the Canadian Arctic, Canadian Rangers within the first Canadian Ranger Patrol Group (1CRPG) are applauded as being positive and progressive examples of state‐Indigenous relations. Located in almost 70 communities across the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, the Yukon and Atlin, British Columbia (BC), Canadian Rangers in 1CRPG are viewed as a critical part of the arctic defense strategy and a cheap and easy way to maintain arctic sovereignty, especially in predominately Indigenous communities in the high arctic. Focusing on how Rangers and Ranger Instructors talk and think about the pay system, this article examines how value is ascribed to Rangers depending on their ability and desire to financially invest in the organization. Studying the polarity, this article analyzes how the military—which prides itself on employing Indigenous people as part of arctic defense—reinforces colonial ideologies and relational structures of Indigenous communities' dependence on state aid. However, this, I argue, further entrenches dangerous colonial stereotypes that (Indigenous) members make poor economic choices and are thus responsible for continuing their ongoing poverty and inferiority.

Commerce and Security Meet in the European Union’s Trade Defence Instruments

Mercantilist policies, protectionism, Chinese and US violations of the spirit—if not always the rules—of the World Trade Organization, along with supply chain vulnerabilities, trade wars, and illegal state subsidies have all contributed to a rise in the weaponisation of commerce (using trade in response to, or to achieve, political decisions or acts) across the globe. The weaponisation and geo-politicisation of trade pose a challenge for the EU, which is poorly suited for a game of power politics. Its common commercial policy developed separately from the intergovernmental foreign and security policy. The level of exclusive EU competence differs across the two policy domains, as do decision-making processes. Drawing on work addressing ideational and instrumental levels of policy, we discuss how the EU is assessing the international environment through the ideational framework of strategic autonomy, and how this has shaped the construction of new trade defence instruments intended to protect against economic and technology-related security risks. Focusing specifically on trade defence instruments addressing security concerns, which are justified in the 2023 European Economic Security Strategy (especially in the pillar focusing on protecting against economic security risks), we show that the distinction between commercial policy and traditional security concerns is eroding.