Stadium Design Research Articles

Baseball Meets the Law: A Chronology of Decisions, Statutes, and Other Legal Events by Ed Edmonds and Frank G. Houdek

Reviewed by: Baseball Meets the Law: A Chronology of Decisions, Statutes, and Other Legal Events by Ed Edmonds and Frank G. Houdek Robert Bellamy Ed Edmonds and Frank G. Houdek. Baseball Meets the Law: A Chronology of Decisions, Statutes, and Other Legal Events. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2017. 319 pp. Paper, $39.95. I am a baseball nerd. My personal and research interests are mainly in the institutions of baseball, such as stadiums, or in the intersection of the game with media. While reading the Introduction of Edmonds and Houdek’s new book, I was struck that these two gentlemen may also be baseball nerds. Their description of how they think about legal issues at the ballpark, from product liability to free agency to intellectual property is similar to my own interests in stadium design and location, placement of cameras, media coverage, etc. I trust the reader and the authors understand that I use the term “nerd” as one of respect and admiration. This is an excellent book that everyone can learn much from reading. Messrs. Edmonds and Houdek are lawyers and legal scholars with impeccable credentials to write this volume. Obviously, a book entitled Baseball Meets the Law is unlikely to attract all baseball fans. The intricacies of the law are of limited interest to the casual fan, despite the authors’ effort in showing how Robinson, Ruth, Postema, Hunter, Messersmith and many others participated in legal issues that were seminal in creating today’s baseball industry including the game on the field. Edmonds and Houdek offer one of the most useful introductions I have read in some time. It carefully explains the process of compiling so much information in a relatively short book, the rationale of using historical chronology as a means of presentation, and admits that compromises had to be made to bring this project to fruition. They clearly state that this is a “selective chronology” and ask readers to bring to their attention what may have been left out. Part of my job is to accept that challenge. The organization and scope of the book is appropriate and useful with chapters ranging from “Baseball Origins and Club Teams, 1791– 1865” to “Selig, Steroids and Baseball Prosperity,” with each chapter broken down into specific years. Of course, several issues (e.g., free agency, steroids, Flood) took place over a series of years. While noted by the authors, this does lead to some repetition with names being given in full over and over. This is distracting in several places including the various versions of names given Jackie Robinson, and the use of full names (e.g., Robert Francis Murphy, George Wharton Pepper, Kennesaw Mountain Landis, and Tillinghast L’Hommedieau Huston). On the other hand, whom among us could resist using the last name in the list in full whenever we have the chance? [End Page 231] There all also several entries that do not seem explicitly linked to baseball and the law. Examples include President Obama’s visit to the Hall of Fame, Kevin Brown’s Dodger contract, the deaths of Curt Flood and Yogi Berra, and Bowie Kuhn’s birth. While many of these are informative and add a bit of spice to the book, there are some cases that would better fill the space. I am also skeptical of the value of Appendices B and C. The “Black Sox” scandal is no doubt one of the most important cases in baseball history. However, the presence of a “Selected Bibliography” on the topic indicates that the topic has been covered thoroughly in any number of books and articles. I question whether this material, as complete as it is, deserves an inordinate amount of attention. As for additions that could and, in my estimation, should be included in future editions of the book are these: • Some information on the Walker brothers and other early African American players that led to the “unwritten rule” of racial segregation in the game for decades. Since the first women in baseball are covered, as they certainly deserve to be, what about these other baseball pioneers? • The Sports Broadcasting Act (1961) and the promulgation of FCC antisports siphoning rules (1975), and the subsequent overturning of...

Evaluation and Analysis of Wind Flow for a Football Stadium

Wind influences many aspects in the design of modern stadiums. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling, as one of the numerical analysis methods, can assist architects and engineers in finding solutions for a safe and efficient design for a stadium. This paper presents the wind analysis process for a football stadium in West Lafayette IN by using CFD to evaluate its future retrofit design. The current and future design concept models, include the stadium, surrounding buildings, and topography, were built using AutoCAD. Based upon these models, steady state RANS (Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes) CFD mathematical models were developed using ANSYS Fluent software to evaluate the wind flow patterns around and inside the stadium. Using the current stadium as a baseline case, the future design concept was simulated to predict its performance. Simulation results suggest that there will be bigger area of high velocities and vortexes occurring in the future design concept due to the closed shape of the future design. A modification of having an opening on the first floor was proposed, and the resultant wind flow was simulated. The final results show in most cases the area of high velocities and vortexes is much smaller compared to that of the design concept resulting from the opening. The approach used in the study can be generally applied in the wind analysis for different types of buildings or infrastructures.

Confirmatory factor analysis for indicators of perceived environmental quality of the stadium (IPEQS).

Studies conducted in the 1980s (see Canter et al. in Football in its place. An environmental psychology of football grounds. Routledge, London, 1989) highlighted the prominent role of the spatial-physical features of football grounds in influencing users' perception of safety, comfort, and general satisfaction towards the stadium experience. In particular, the importance of fulfilling the spectators' needs of personal space (e.g. presence of an open view, proper distance between the seats) and movement opportunity was analysed. The aim of this study is to confirm the factorial structure of a set of indicators--the IPEQS--concerning the perceived quality of an array of aspects (i.e. architectural, social, functional, and safety issues) related to the stadium design. Participants (N = 255), who were selected on the basis of their stadium experience, filled in a self-report questionnaire measuring a set of indicators developed on the basis of both validated tools [i.e. the perceived residential environment quality indicators (PREQIs): Bonaiuto et al. in J Environ Psychol 19:331-352, 1999] and outcomes of semi-structured interviews. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were performed for each scale, and reliability assessments were then carried out for each indicator. IPEQS' factorial structures found through the CFA procedure substantially confirm the results of exploratory factor analyses run with previous data. Outcomes of this study should provide a useful tool for managers and designers of football grounds, in order to improve the overall experience of the spectators.

The adoption and diffusion of pro-environmental stadium design

Research question: Owners and architects face mounting pressure to incorporate environmentally sustainable features in new arenas, ballparks, and stadiums. In this study, we apply Rogers’ diffusion-of-innovations framework to highlight the key influencers and factors contributing to the decision to adopt pro-environmental initiatives.Research method: We conducted interviews with 13 senior architects whose portfolios collectively contained over 25 eco-friendly sport facilities spanning Europe, Australia, Africa, and North America. The facilities discussed were used for a variety of leagues and events, including FIFA World Cup, the Olympic and Paralympic Games, college football and basketball, Major League Baseball (MLB), and the National Football League (NFL). The data were transcribed and analyzed following the open, axial, and selective coding sequence.Results and findings: The results of the study indicated that owners and quasi-owners reviewing green facility proposals considered the input of several groups, including the design firms, the media, political leaders, environmental activists, and local citizens. According to interviewees, the primary incentives for owners and quasi-owners to adopt sustainable designs were economic savings over the life of the facility, perception-management opportunities, and demonstration of their innovativeness. Finally, facility designers predicted the diffusion of pro-environmental sport facilities would continue in the immediate future.Implications: Innovation diffusion is driven by early adopters, who prioritize an innovation's relative advantage and compatibility over its complexity, lack of trialability, and lack of observability. Additionally, pro-environmental facilities are being used by organizations to demonstrate both environmental stewardship and their cultures of innovation. Future research should explore both the decision-making process and barriers to sustainable design adoption in further depth.

From Hillsborough to Rio de Janeiro

Twenty-five years after Hillsborough, football's world governing body FIFA insists that security and safety features are part of stadium design. However, World Cup 2014 organizers have a whole host of security issues with which to contend. Brazil also has its share of football (soccer) hooligans. Last December, rioting fans stopped a league game between Atletico Paranaense and Vasco da Gama. In March, a Santos fan was killed by rival Sao Paolo supporters. There were 30 fatalities at Brazilian football matches in 2013 and 23 in 2012. Organized gangs linked to crime cartels are behind much of the violence. A secret government report highlighted official fears about disgruntled Brazilians or politically motivated groups disrupting the World Cup with strikes and demonstrations. Security and safety is the responsibility of the government and host cities as well as the organizing body and host stadiums. Language: en

Rethinking the Fascist Aesthetic: Mass Gymnastics, Political Spectacle and the Stadium in 1930s France

This article explores two features of cultural life in France during the era of the Popular Front, with a special focus on the Paris world’s fair of 1937 – mass gymnastics and large stadium projects designed to host both sporting and political spectacles. These developments are considered in the light of both transnational exchange, and the widespread unease expressed in interwar France towards spectator sport on the one hand and ‘totalitarian’ political mobilization on the other hand. It is argued that a ‘double attitude’ towards spectacle emerged, where disdain for commercial spectator sport sat alongside an often grudging admiration for large-scale political spectacle. The article examines the reception in France both of the Bohemian Sokol physical culture movement and the Berlin Olympic Games of 1936, showing how French commentators across the political spectrum negotiated their sense of the value of spectacles – normally by reclaiming them for identifiably ‘French’ democratic traditions and by blurring the distinction between spectatorship and participation. In doing so, the article takes issue with the reductionist nature of the notion of a ‘fascist aesthetic’, stressing that the wide purchase of both mass gymnastics and monumental neo-classical stadium design suggests that the political meaning of such things lies in their use and not their form.

Study on the Glare Problems of the Intelligent Lighting Control System in Modern Stadiums

The application of intelligent lighting control system, as an advanced technology in stadium lighting project will become a trend in the future. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the characteristics and advantages of stadium intelligent lighting system and puts an emphasis on the glare,a must-be-solved problem, in the design of stadiums. An in-depth exploration about the glare is developed from the physical factors to the mechanism reaction of human vision. In terms of glare inhibition, a series of countermeasures are listed covering the design of lighting, selection and installation of lamps.

The Perspective of Ecological Building Large Sports Venues Green Regulation System

In sports ecological perspective, adopting the literature material method, expert interview and logical induction, for large sports venues green construction and current situation of the development and utilization of system analysis and research, on this basis building a large sports venues and green sustainable development mode. The results of the study conclude that the large size stadium design, construction, operation as an ecological system was studied. In every link of fusion, through green, save and sustainable development thought. Using this model will be good for large sports venues construction and sustainable utilization.

Two years to kick-off [stadium construction

As Brazil prepares to host the 2014 World Cup, the country's civil engineers have already missed a few open goals, but they still expect to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat. Working in coordination with the Local Organising Committee (COL), each of the 12 host cities is responsible for dozens of different engineering projects, which can be grouped into five categories: stadium design and construction; transport infrastructure; accommodation infrastructure; security technology; and information and communication technologies. FIFA, football's world governing body, has calculated that a country looking to host a World Cup needs to start working on some of these areas at least seven years in advance. With less than two and a half years to go, Brazil has been criticised for running worryingly behind schedule, particularly in the construction of stadiums.

Deafblind Olympics: A case for a Grand Challenge

This paper proposes a Grand Challenge to serve as the impetus for the reexamination of sports and sports technology under the prism of enabling elite deafblind participation to foster innovation in sports engineering. Technical obstacles faced by deafblind athletes are classical engineering challenges: on-field positioning, path-following navigation, range finding, collision detection, peer-to-peer communication and object identification (friend or foe). Sufficient technical progress has been achieved to allow for robots to compete in the game of soccer (Robocup), similar progress can be put forth for the development of elite deafblind athletics. A collaborative effort to solve the Grand Challenge of the Deafblind Olympics has the potential for spurring innovation in sports training, sports equipment and stadium design. This paper presents a survey of various technical challenges faced by the elite deafblind athlete.

3D CFD simulations of wind flow and wind-driven rain shelter in sports stadia: Influence of stadium geometry

Sports stadia are increasingly used to host a wide variety of activities that attract large attendances, ranging from sports matches to concerts, festivities and conferences. One of the crucial aspects of spectator comfort in open stadia is protection from wind and rain. However, in many stadia this part of spectator comfort is insufficiently taken care of. The main reason is that stadia and stadium roofs are often designed with only vertical rainfall in mind, neglecting the influence of wind that can sweep the rain onto the stands. This wind-driven rain (WDR) can reach a large area of the stand underneath the roof, resulting in discomfort for the spectators in this area. For stadium design, it is important to understand the interaction between wind and rain in different types of stadium geometry and its effect on wetting of the stands. This paper presents 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations of wind flow and WDR for twelve different generic stadium configurations that are representative for a wide range of existing stadia. The wind-flow patterns are determined by steady-state Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations. The WDR trajectories are calculated using Lagrangian particle tracking, yielding the wetting pattern on the stands. This study demonstrates the influence of both overall stadium geometry and roof slope on the area of the stand that is wetted by WDR. It shows the importance of taking into account WDR in the stadium design process, and it provides some design guidelines to avoid this type of spectator discomfort.

Stadium Architecture and Regional Economic Development: International Experience and the Plans of Durban

: For the FIFA World Cup 2010, South Africa plans to invest heavily. The positive economic effects that the country is hoping for stand in contrast to almost all statistical ex-post studies. This contribution emphasises that these results, usually from research under-taken in the USA, can only be generalised to a limited degree. The density of sports venues in developed countries is so high, that the marginal effects of new stadia are necessarily limited. We also emphasise that stadium design around the world was not hitherto adequately targeted towards positive economic effects. The example of Durban and its plans for a new “iconic” stadium is used to illustrate fundamental principles of stadium design and their embedding in a re-urbanisation process that have to be undertaken in order to consciously achieve positive regional economic effects.

Aspects of stadium design for warm climates

The airflow pattern on the spectators' terrace in stadia is affected by numerous architectural factors, such as form, size, permeability, i.e. the morphology of the building. A stadium design not taking into account the prevailing environmental parameters can result in unpleasant thermal and aerodynamic environment in the stadium bowl. The present article focuses on the airflow modifying effect of some architectural parameters, such as the overhang of the roof, the ratio and disposition of the openings on the stadium façade and the roof slope. The airflow that spectators are exposed to, has a significative aerothermal comfort modifying effect both in warm and cold climates. In warm climates the aim is to provide homogeneous and intense ventilation complying on one hand, the threshold of mechanical nuisance and on the other hand that of the athletic records' certification. The analysis provided by this article is based on the results of a series of parametric wind tunnel experiments carried out in one of the boundary layer wind tunnels of the Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment de Nantes (CSTB). The results have been analysed using mathematical statistical methods in order to characterise the average airflow conditions and those belonging to the most and less intensely ventilated zones of the spectators' terrace.

Managing the delivery of iconic football stadiums in England

The English football premier league has become the most popular sports league in the world; with ardent fans and audiences all over the world. The potential business opportunities that this growth holds have therefore attracted investors who are keen to buy shares in the clubs and sign up the best footballers that money can buy. Underpinning the growth in all of the premier league clubs is a desire to make a distinct statement of identity as part of a competitive strategy. One way to achieve this is through the design and construction of iconic football stadiums. This paper explores the specific project management challenges associated with delivery of iconic football stadiums in England and draws lessons for the management of similar iconic infrastructure projects. A study of project management best practice and some case studies shows that key issues which are common to these projects are centred on design management; choice of procurement route; client management; and stakeholder expectation management. These issues are not necessarily unique to the project management of iconic football stadiums but are amplified by the context of these projects. The emphasis on iconic status in a competitive market also means that stadium projects should be conceived and delivered in the context of other strategic projects which should be clearly understood by the project management team.

Crowd circulation and stadium design: low flow rate systems

For the past 30 years, sports stadia design guides have contained generalised optimistic flow rates for the design of crowd evacuation and egress routes. Unfortunately, even though the guides recognise their own limitations and the fact that lower flow rates should be considered in certain situations, human nature, practical needs and a lack of research has lead to widespread use of guidance values that are sometimes inappropriate. It is imperative within risk assessment and circulation design that this phenomenon is better understood in order to limit the potential for underdesign at the risk of unwanted levels of queuing, congestion and potentially unsafe conditions. This is especially important when considering the progressive move from prescriptive guidance to performance based design within the design industry. In recognition of this, the new European Standard for the design of spectator facilities recommends design flow rates significantly lower than those recommended in traditional sports guidance documents. This paper presents a significant contribution to this work by firstly providing supportive evidence for the new European standard values when applied to football and rugby stadia, and secondly stating that the figures within traditional and new guidance should not be generally applied to what amounts to over 15 different stadia types. Case study evidence is provided to show that the new European standard values still remain up to twice those observed in some stadia types. Reasons are given for the occurrence of low-capacity flow rates within these stadia and recommendations are made for future work to ensure that designers are using appropriate design flow rates for each stadium project.

Stadia development as a catalyst for regeneration

For many, the World Cup stadia in Japan and Korea set new standards in terms of stadium design and left people in England asking ‘Why can't our stadia be like that?’. Perhaps what is easily forgotten is that recent years have witnessed considerable investment in stadia in the UK in the light of legislative and other pressures. England now has some of the safest, most comfortable and atmospheric stadia anywhere. This paper explores some of the trends in stadia development over the last ten years and argues that issues surrounding stadia development and redevelopment form part of the wider debate concerning urban regeneration. Citing as examples the Riverside Stadium, Middlesbrough, the Stadium of Light, Sunderland, the Britannia Stadium, Stoke and Bolton's Reebok Stadium, it argues that the feasibility of stadia development is affected by matters concerning land, infrastructure and property development opportunities. It argues that there is an interaction between stadia development and other commercial development opportunities so that, in some cases, a location and development decision regarding a stadium can act as a catalyst for attracting new development in the locality. Drawing on examples in the USA, and more recent developments at Southampton and Leicester, the paper argues that, in future, stadia provision is likely to be driven by two key factors: financing of football and the regeneration and property development opportunities. In the light of this argument the future plans for Arsenal and Everton are analysed and conclusions drawn.

Acoustical design of baseball stadiums

Baseball team owners and stadium managers alike wish to have good acoustics in their venues. To achieve this, many issues must be addressed early in the design of a new stadium. For example, if community noise is a concern for a new open-air stadium, addressing this will require construction budgeting for certain architectural and sound system design features. Minimizing echoes is an acoustical design challenge for both open-air and enclosed stadiums. This requires a general awareness of likely echo paths, knowing what acoustical treatment options are generally acceptable for this building type, and use of predictive modeling for the sound system design. Enclosed stadiums pose additional design challenges such as the quieting of very large air-handing units, minimizing reverberation, and making the sound system intelligible. These challenges extend beyond the seating bowl to the concourses and a host of ancillary areas. This paper reviews the authors’ experience in the overall acoustical design of modern baseball stadiums.

The Reebok Stadium

The brief by Bolton Wanderers Football Club to design a flagship stadium on a 200-acre site at Middlebrook, Horwich, near Bolton, has now been realized. The result is a stadium currently capable of accommodating nearly 28 000 seated spectators, with unrivalled levels of spectator comfort and safety and with disabled facilities comparable with the best of the English Carling Premiership, also providing hospitality for up to 3000 guests and with an exhibition/indoor sports facility offering 35 000 square feet of usable 8 m clear height exhibition space. This paper outlines: contract procurement, stadium design, construction costs, and the success of the stadium in use.

THE REEBOK STADIUM.

The brief by Bolton Wanderers Football Club to design a flagship stadium on a 200-acre site at Middlebrook, Horwich, near Bolton, has now been realized. The result is a stadium currently capable of accommodating nearly 28 000 seated spectators, with unrivalled levels of spectator comfort and safety and with disabled facilities comparable with the best of the English Carling Premiership, also providing hospitality for up to 3000 guests and with an exhibition/indoor sports facility offering 35 000 square feet of usable 8 m clear height exhibition space. This paper outlines: contract procurement, stadium design, construction costs, and the success of the stadium in use.

Croke Park redevelopment—stadium design in an urban context

This paper describes the general principles of stadium design as applied to the redevelopment of Croke Park, with a particular emphasis on safety. It goes on to discuss the design solutions that were adopted for a number of the key elements. Structural frame was a response to site constraints and maximized the number of spectators accommodated on the lower tier. The corporate level is of composite construction, suspended from the upper concourse beams. The first phase has been completed and the second phase is currently under construction with a completion date of May 2000. Planning for the third and final phase is well advanced with a start-on-site date of October 1999. The result will be an ultramodern stadium for Ireland's greatest sporting events with accommodation for in excess of 84 000 spectators.