Stadium Attendance Research Articles

Does live broadcasting reduce stadium attendance? The case of Norwegian football

PurposeAttendance at matches in the smaller European football leagues is challenged by the increased number of live broadcast matches, particularly covering the biggest leagues. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the effects of live broadcasting, match scheduling and other factors on stadium attendance in the top division of Norwegian football.Design/methodology/approachThe analysis is based on a fixed effects regression model on attendance at match levels covering the period 2005 to 2011.FindingsThe main results show two different effects. While live broadcast domestic matches on “free TV” is positively correlated to stadium attendance, the increased number of “imported” matches from the big-five leagues is a substitute. Moreover, matches played on weekdays have a lower level of attendance than weekend matches.Practical implicationsThe increased number of imported live broadcast football matches from the biggest European leagues influences and widens the financial gap between the biggest and the smaller football leagues. One possible solution for reducing the substitution effect from these matches is a more efficient match schedule in the Norwegian top division in football.Originality/valueNorway has a small population with a high interest for football. This paper measures effects on attendance in the Norwegian top division in football matches with regards to the increased number of live broadcast matches both from the domestic league and from the big five football leagues.

How Outcome Uncertainty, Loss Aversion and Team Quality Affect Stadium Attendance in Dutch Professional Football

We investigate stadium attendance in the highest level of Dutch professional football for the seasons 2000/01 – 2015/16 focusing on outcome uncertainty, loss aversion and team quality. We find that for individual football matches, attendance is related to reference-dependent preferences with loss aversion dominating the preference for uncertain outcomes. Furthermore, team quality is an important determinant of stadium attendance. Towards the end of the season, outcome uncertainty regarding the final ranking becomes important. For this seasonal uncertainty, we find a positive and stable, but rather small impact of the introduction of a unique and large end-of-season play-off scheme for the qualification for European football.

College Sport and Declining Stadium Attendance: Designing Adaptive Strategies

This case study presents the challenge of declining football attendance that a number of NCAA football programs are facing. The case participants (as members of a hypothetically formed advisory board) are asked to develop adaptive strategies and tactics to respond to this challenge by conducting an in-depth examination of fans’ declining stadium attendance and proposing recommendations to the Pac-12 Commissioner’s office. Particularly, students are expected to detail the reasons for fans’ declining stadium attendance, to identify the short-term and long-term implications of declining stadium attendance, and to specify adaptive (corrective) strategies that can be designed based on Arizona State University’s ticket-related marketing initiatives as a template. As a member of the advisory board, students are asked to address a list of questions and provide recommendations to address the challenge.

Mitos, ritos, identidad y alteridad en un estadio de fútbol

A partir del trabajo de investigación sobre la cultura de gradas generada en el estadio del Granada Club de Fútbol, desarrollado en el transcurso de tres temporadas futbolísticas (2013-2014, 2014-2015 y 2015-2016), centramos aquí la atención fundamentalmente en aspectos simbólicos del comportamiento de los aficionados para responder a tres objetivos claves: 1. describir, caracterizar y encontrar sentido a los mitos más destacados entre los seguidores; 2. hacer lo mismo con los ritos que tienen lugar en el estadio y en torno al encuentro; 3. valorar el efecto que la asistencia al estadio tiene sobre la construcción de la identidad y alteridad de los/as espectadores/as.

Predicting season ticket holder loyalty using geographical information

ABSTRACTSeason ticket holders (STHs) are an integral part of the sporting product. Interestingly, and contrary to the persistent interest in analysing the determinants of stadium attendances, sports economists have so far largely refrained from exploring the potential determinants of STH loyalty as expressed through regular stadium attendances. In this article, we address this notable shortcoming by exploring the potential determinants of STH stadium attendance demand. In particular, we examine the yet under-researched role of increasing opportunity costs resulting from larger home-stadium distances in STH stadium attendance demand. Our results suggest that STHs’ geographical location plays an important role in predicting STH stadium attendance demand. More specifically, we observe an unexpected, nonlinear distance–attendance relationship, indicating that behaviourally loyal STHs live either exceptionally close or far away from the stadium.

Dissecting the survivors – how the age of a club contributes to the ability of a team to maintain the top position in the European soccer leagues

Summary Objectives To test the hypothesis that the age of a club is a major determinant of the higher survival rates exhibited by European soccer teams. News We studied 185 teams from the 2006/2007 season to the 2012/2013 season. We used Cox proportional hazards regression models. We also controlled for the age effect with variables suggested by the literature. These variables included transfer flows, the presence of the team at UEFA competitions (Champions League or Europa League), stadium attendance, and the percentage of national players. Prospect We observed that the age of the club is an important determinant in explaining the higher survival rates of the teams belonging to older clubs. More nuance was discovered when the teams were analyzed by professional league. Among English teams, the survival rate at the top is positively affected by having higher percentages of national players, higher transfer inflows, participation in UEFA competitions and higher stadium attendance. Stadium attendance is an important factor in keeping a team at the top, independent of the European league (with the exception of the French competition). French teams’ survival tends to benefit from the acquisition of players (proxied by higher transfer outflows). Although significant, the age effect nevertheless does not prevent young clubs (those founded within the last 50 years) from achieving first place. Young clubs that manage transfers well, have impressive stadium attendance, and are stimulated by UEFA participation tend to experience additional positive effects on their survival rate at the top. Conclusion The most robust results indicate that the age effect is a statistically significant determinant. Older clubs tend to benefit from four age-related dimensions: the relevance of assets, more efficient decision-making processes, monopolistic market power and the control of decisions by the executive board.

Star quality and competitive balance? Television audience demand for English Premier League football reconsidered

ABSTRACTThe aim of this article is to investigate the determinants of television audience for English Premier League (EPL) football matches during the 2013–2014 season (n = 154). The model is adapted from Buraimo and Simmons (2015) who concluded that star quality was an important determinant of television audiences for the EPL over the 2000–2008 period, whereas uncertainty of outcome and championship, Europe and relegation contention were not. Their measures for contention are replaced by indicators based on Scelles et al.’s (2013b, 2016) competitive intensity. Results show a significant positive impact of star quality but also championship and Champions League intensity and no significant impact of Europa League, potential Europa League and relegation intensity. Based on these results, the article suggests that the EPL should encourage both star quality and competitive balance so that all teams can be competitive in terms of the title or qualification for the UEFA Champions League. Given the differences in revenue generation between English teams, the best way to achieve both star quality and competitive balance would be through the introduction of a European Super League. However, this conclusion based on television audience contradicts that of Scelles et al. (2016) based on stadium attendance.

The Demand for Football in Portugal

The aim of this study is to identify variables that influence the stadium attendance in Portugal, and how these variables may affect decision management. Deriving a demand curve for stadium attendance in the Portuguese First Division Football League for 898 matches of five seasons (2010/2011-2014/2015), the results highlight five main explicative variables: cost, habit persistence, expected quality, team performance, and outcome uncertainty. With regard to outcome uncertainty, we employ the framework proposed by Humphreys and Zhou and we conclude for the importance of alternative factors affecting consumer choice like loss aversion and home win preference.

Against all odds? Exploring the role of game outcome uncertainty in season ticket holders’ stadium attendance demand

In this study we investigate the important but rather ambiguous role of game outcome uncertainty (GOU) in consumers’ demand for professional sports. Specifically, using a unique and strongly balanced panel data set containing information on individual physical attendance from 13,892 season ticket holders (STHs) of a German professional football club, we find evidence for a positive effect of GOU on two differing spectator decisions – both the decision to physically attend a game in the stadium and the decision on what time to enter the stadium, an aspect which has so far been neglected in the literature. Moreover, GOU seems to play an especially important role in the decision-making of one particular group: STHs with comparatively high coordination costs.

The Impact of the Soccer Schedule on TV Viewership and Stadium Attendance

In the past decade, television (TV) broadcasters have been investing a huge amount of money for the Belgian Pro League broadcasting rights. These companies pursue an audience rating maximization, which depends heavily on the schedule of the league matches. At the same time, clubs try to maximize their home attendance and find themselves affected by the schedule as well. Our article aims to capture the Belgian soccer fans’ preferences with respect to scheduling options, both for watching matches on TV and in the stadium. We carried out a discrete choice experiment using an online survey questionnaire distributed on a national scale. The choice sets are based on three match characteristics: month, kickoff time, and quality of the opponent. The first part of this survey concerns TV broadcasting aspects. The second part includes questions about stadium attendance. The choice data are first analyzed with a conditional logit model which assumes homogenous preferences. Then a mixed logit model is fit to model the heterogeneity among the fans. The estimates are used to calculate the expected utility of watching a Belgian Pro League match for every possible setting, either on TV or in the stadium. These predictions are validated in terms of the real audience rating and home attendance data. Our results can be used to improve the scheduling process of the Belgian Pro League in order to persuade more fans to watch the matches on TV or in a stadium.

Spectator Demand, Uncertainty of Results, and Public Interest

This article tests the impact of match outcome uncertainty on stadium attendance and television audiences of English Premier League football. The method accounts for different measures of outcome uncertainty, an issue identified as a potential source of discord between existing evidence. Results show that more certain matches are preferred by spectators at the stadium yet more uncertain matches are preferred on TV spectators. Thus, a change in revenue sharing polices aimed at promoting a more uncertain match may affect both TV and stadium demand in opposing directions.

Assimilation or Contrast? Status Inequality, Judgment of Product Quality, and Product Choices in Markets

Much of organizational status research has been conducted at the micro level by examining the effect of individual status positions. To answer calls for more status research at the macro level, this study extends psychological research on assimilation and contrast effects to examine how status inequality as a distributional property influences product choices in markets. In the context of U.S. college bowls (a specific type of organization within U.S. collegiate athletics), this study analyzes how the status inequality among bowls influences bowls’ stadium attendance, which reflects the judgment of bowls by football fans as the key buyers. The analyses yield evidence consistent with assimilation and contrast effects. Below the middle level of status inequality, the relationship between status inequality and stadium attendance is positive for low-status bowls but negative for high-status bowls. Above the middle level of status inequality, the relationships are reversed. The effect of status inequality is also stronger for low-status bowls that are newer and thus more uncertain in product quality. These findings make significant contributions to understanding status hierarchies in markets by redirecting organizational status research with a macrolevel view, uncovering cognitive processes underlying buyers’ judgment of products based on organization status, and demonstrating the dynamics of status hierarchies and their consequences for organizations.

Hooliganism and Demand for Football in Italy: Attendance and Counterviolence Policy Evaluation

AbstractThis paper empirically investigates the relationship between stadium attendance, hooliganism and counter-violence policy measures in Italian Serie A. In particular, this paper analyses the impact of counter-hooliganism policies adopted in 2007 on the quantity of game tickets sold. The counter-hooliganism measures, grounded on an entry card, namely a ‘fidelity card’, were designed to keep out hooligans from stadiums so favouring the attendance of either occasional spectators or uncommitted fans. According to our econometric investigation the expected substitution between committed fans and uncommitted fans did not take shape. In sum, the ‘fidelity card’ did not turn to be successful if evaluated on the average attendance perspective.

Competition format, championship uncertainty and stadium attendance in European football – a small league perspective

To increase the number of regular season games, small football leagues are often organized as quadruple round robin tournaments with teams playing each other four times. Theoretically, however, the more games played, the less uncertain is the championship race, reducing fan interest in the league. This article uses data from Austria and Switzerland to study the relationship between competition format, championship uncertainty and attendance demand empirically. Results suggest that a team still in contention to win the championship positively affects attendance, while it is not the specificity of the competition format that per se contributes to less championship uncertainty.

Stadium atmosphere: scale development and validation in Indian context

Purpose– This paper aims to develop a scale for stadium atmosphere in the Indian context. This is considered as a key area for sports managers, as stadium attendance contributes toward the teams revenues. Moreover, while the importance of environment is well-established in the marketing literature, stadium atmosphere has received limited attention.Design/methodology/approach– Through qualitative and quantitative studies in five different phases, a 14-item four-dimension stadium atmosphere scale was developed that included physical layout, facility aesthetics, entertainment experience and social interaction.Findings– The stadium atmosphere scale developed in this study demonstrates sound psychometric properties based on various reliability and validity tests as well as scale replications using different samples.Practical implications– The stadium atmosphere scale developed will be of particular use for sports marketers and management. It could be inferred that the stadium managers could expect high spectator attendance and satisfaction by focusing on stadium atmosphere factors such as the accessibility of seats and allocation of seat spaces, stadium architecture, the game characteristics and the attitudes and behaviors of stadium employees during live games.Originality/value– The present study addresses a key gap identified in the sports marketing and management area. The study adds to the conceptual understanding of the stadium atmosphere construct and empirically demonstrates the measurement scale for the construct.

The Impact of the Soccer Schedule on TV Viewership and Stadium Attendance: Evidence from the Belgian Pro League

In the past decade, television broadcasters have been investing a huge amount of money for the Belgian Pro League broadcasting rights. These companies pursue an audience rating maximization, which depends heavily on the schedule of the league matches. At the same time, clubs try to maximize their home attendance and find themselves affected by the schedule as well. Our paper aims to capture the Belgian soccer fans’ preferences with respect to scheduling options, both for watching matches on TV and in the stadium. We carried out a discrete choice experiment using an online survey questionnaire distributed on a national scale. The choice sets are based on three match characteristics: month, kickoff time, and quality of the opponent. The first part of this survey concerns television broadcasting aspects. The second part includes questions about stadium attendance. The choice data is first analyzed with a conditional logit model which assumes homogenous preferences. Then a mixed logit model is fit to model the heterogeneity among the fans. The estimates are used to calculate the expected utility of watching a Belgian Pro League match for every possible setting, either on TV or in the stadium. These predictions are validated in terms of the real audience rating and home attendance data. Our results can be used to improve the scheduling process of the Belgian Pro League in order to persuade more fans to watch the matches on TV or in a stadium.

Enhancing Football Brands Brand Equity

The sport entertainment industry has its most famous representative in Europe. Hundreds of professional football clubs are playing in their European football leagues. They attract supporters in front of the screen and in stadiums. The clubs in competitions are medium sized companies. They are competing and working together while they are delivering their core service, the game on the ground. The spectator can be considered as an important budget line for all clubs. Budgets are nevertheless often not balanced and stadium attendance is underdeveloped. We conducted research within two different football nations, France and Germany. Four clubs were in the sample and interviews with the management were carried out. The conceptual approach was based on brand image theories. Football clubs are specific sport brands. Brand image elements attract spectators into the stadium for those brands. These elements can explain the purchase intentions of season tickets and merchandising products. Our research revealed that common elements and differences exist between the clubs, each club having a brand identity. We identified which elements lead to purchase intentions and made best practices evident. The importance of the game is often overestimated by a clubs management. The game and the attractiveness of the stadium are important, but not the only factors explaining stadium attendance. The club has also to be a good club in the community, and corporate social responsibility (CSR) becomes a crucial issue.

Parity in professional sports when revenues are maximized

There are two major hypotheses regarding the talent distribution among the teams that would maximize the total revenues in a sports league; dominant teams versus parity. This paper examines the revenue structure of National Football League and proposes policy recommendations regarding talent distribution among the teams. By using a unique, rich data set on game day stadium attendance and TV ratings we are able to measure the total demand as a function of involved teams' talent levels. Reduced form regression results indicate that TV viewers are more interested in close games, on the other hand stadium attendees are more interested in home team's dominance, in other words stadium demand and TV demand work against each other. We therefore propose a policy that promotes slight parity among the teams where big market teams have a slight advantage over the others. Total revenues of the league are maximized under such policy.

Stadium attendance in German professional football – the (un)importance of uncertainty of outcome reconsidered

Although deeply ingrained in the economics of professional team sports literature, previous research could not confirm the importance of outcome uncertainty in European professional football. Moreover, a negative effect was detected and explained rather controversially: It is argued that the majority of spectators prefer to see the home team play either a much inferior team or a rather successful team. With data of n = 306 matches in the German Bundesliga, a generalized Tobit estimator with individual cut-off points and error terms clustered by home teams is employed to follow up with the discussion on the (un)importance of outcome uncertainty. The results highlight a significant positive effect on attendance when either the home and/or the away team still has a theoretical chance to win the championship while the suggested importance of teams still having the possibility to qualify for the UEFA Champions League is not supported (medium-term uncertainty). Furthermore, in line with previous research we could detect a negative effect of short-term uncertainty. However, while there is no evidence that spectators prefer the home team to play an inferior team, the results suggest that it is rather a strong brand of the away team that rises attendance figures in the German Bundesliga.

The impact of televised football on stadium attendances in English and Spanish league football

Since the early 1990s, sports broadcasting has emerged to become an important part of the sports industry. This is particularly important in the case of European football because revenues generated from the sport broadcast market tend to dominate those generated from gate attendance, which has traditionally been the main source of income for football clubs and leagues. In this article, we examine the broadcast regimes of the English Premier League and the Spanish Primera Liga (Liga de Primera Division) and examine the impacts that televising games from these leagues have had on their respective match‐day attendances. We find that, although stadium attendances in both leagues respond to a series of factors in a similar manner, the effects of broadcasting on match‐day attendance vary across the two leagues. We examine the economics issues and policy implications of these findings.