Spring Cereals Research Articles

Prioritising agri-environment options for greenhouse gas mitigation

PurposeThis paper aims to assess agri-environment (AE) scheme options on cultivated agricultural land in England for their impact on agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It considers both absolute emissions reduction and reduction incorporating yield decrease and potential production displacement. Similarities with Ecological Focus Areas (EFAs) introduced in 2015 as part of the post-2014 Common Agricultural Policy reform, and their potential impact, are considered.Design/methodology/approachA life-cycle analysis approach derives GHG emissions for 18 key representative options. Meta-modelling is used to account for spatial environmental variables (annual precipitation, soil type and erosion risk), supplementing the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change methodology.FindingsMost options achieve an absolute reduction in GHG emissions compared to an existing arable crop baseline but at the expense of removing land from production, risking production displacement. Soil and water protection options designed to reduce soil erosion and nitrate leaching decrease GHG emissions without loss of crop yield. Undersown spring cereals support decreased inputs and emissions per unit of crop yield. The most valuable AE options identified are included in the proposed EFAs, although lower priority is afforded to some.Practical implicationsRecommendations are made where applicable to modify option management prescriptions and to further reduce GHG emissions.Originality/valueThis research is relevant and of value to land managers and policy makers. A dichotomous key summarises AE option prioritisation and supports GHG mitigation on cultivated land in England. The results are also applicable to other European countries.

Effect of fertilizer dose on the performance of spring cereals

In country like Pakistan where population is growing at an alarming rate, food shortage is the top challenge for researchers. To contribute to this effort, field trials entitled “Effect of fertilizer dose on the performance of spring cereals” were conducted at Cereal Crops Research Institute Pirsabak Nowshehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 2010-2011. The experiment was laid out in RCB design with split plot arrangement replicated three times, with plot size 5X1.8m, having 6 rows 30cm apart. Fertilizer doses were allotted to main while cereal species were allotted to subplots. Fertilizer dose, cereal species and their interaction had significantly affected cereal performance. Application of 60:30:30 and 120:60:60 (N:P:K kg ha -1 ) significantly affected plant height and phenology of cereals than no NPK. Application of 60:30:30 and 120:60:60 produced 55% and 62% more grain yield respectively than no NPK. Wheat, triticale and oat phenology was significantly delayed, oat and triticale produced taller plants than wheat and barley. Triticale yield was significantly higher than barley, wheat and oat. In case of interactions triticale with 120:60:60 NPK took more days to heading (131) and physiological maturity (168), while barley took less days to heading (109) and physiological maturity with no NPK. Significantly taller plants were produced by oat (129 cm) at 120:60:60 while barley produced dwarf plants (73cm) with no NPK. In case of grain yield, triticale produced more yield (5275 kg ha -1 ) with 60:30:30 while oat gave lowest yield (2433 kg ha -1 ) with no NPK. It is concluded that triticale and barley performed well on less fertile soil than wheat and oat. For optimum production, 60:30:30 and 120:60:60 (N: P: K kg ha -1 ) are recommended for barley/triticale and wheat/oat respectively, in conditions similar to

Different leguminous pre-crops increased yield of succeeding cereals in two consecutive years

ABSTRACTLeguminous pre-crops are an important source of green manure in organic crop rotations for improving soil fertility and achieving high yields of cereals. We aimed to study the potential of various leguminous species, other than the traditionally cultivated red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), as green manure pre-crops for subsequent cereals. The use of different legume species enables to exploit advantages of specific legumes in organic cereal production. In order to test the legumes as pre-crops for cereals, we carried out trials located in the temperate climate zone of northeast Europe (58°44′59.41″ N, 26°24′54.02″ E). We sowed the following perennial legumes as pre-crops: red clover, alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum L.) and Washington lupine (Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl.), biennial white sweet clover (Melilotus albus Medik.) and annual Alexandria clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.), and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.). Timothy (Phleum pratense L.) was used as a control. The leguminous pre-crops were followed by three spring cereals (barley, oat and spring wheat) and two winter cereals (rye and winter wheat). We tested the first-year after-effect (all cereals) and second-year after-effect (only barley and oat) of pre-crops on the grain yield of cereals. Perennial and biennial legume species produced the highest dry matter yield and contained the highest amount of nutrients, especially nitrogen, compared to annual species. All subsequent cereals produced significant extra yields after each leguminous pre-crop in the following two years, although the effect was smaller in the second year. The most suitable pre-crops for spring cereals were red and alsike clover followed by lupine, whereas the best pre-crops for winter cereals were sweet clover and annual clovers. Our results show the potential of various leguminous pre-crop species as valuable sources of green manure in organic crop rotation.

Rapid Quantification of Soilborne Pathogen Communities in Wheat-Based Long-Term Field Experiments.

Rainfed experiments operated continuously for up to 84 years in semiarid eastern Oregon are among the oldest agronomic trials in North America. Disease incidence and severity had been quantified visually but quantification of inoculum density had not been attempted. Natural inoculum of 17 fungal and nematode pathogens were quantified for each of 2 years on eight trials using DNA extracts from soil. Crop type, tillage, rotation, soil fertility, year, and their interactions had large effects on the pathogens. Fusarium culmorum and Pratylenchus thornei were more dominant than F. pseudograminearum and P. neglectus where spring crops were grown, and the opposite species dominances occurred where winter wheat was the only crop. Bipolaris sorokiniana and Phoma pinodella were restricted to the presence of spring cereals and pulse crops, respectively. Helgardia spp. occurred in winter wheat-fallow rotations but not in annual winter wheat. Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici was more prevalent in cultivated than noncultivated soils and the opposite generally occurred for Rhizoctonia solani AG-8. Densities of Pythium spp. clade F were high but were also influenced by treatments. Significant treatment effects and interactions were more prevalent in two long-standing (>50-year) annually cropped experiments (29%) than two long-standing 2-year wheat-fallow rotations (14%). Associations among pathogens occurred mostly in an 84-year-old annual cereals experiment. This survey provided guidance for research on dynamics of root-infecting pathogens of rainfed field crops and identified two pathogens (Drechslera tritici-repentis and P. pinodella) not previously identified at the location.

The influence of crop sequence on fungicide and herbicide use intensities in North German arable farming

Abstract The reduction of pesticide use intensity is a societal and political ambition. Crop rotation is one important method to control pests and diseases in arable farming. We investigated the contribution of crop rotation to the variability of herbicide and fungicide use of 60 farms in four regions of Northern Germany. Our study aimed at answering the question: do diverse crop sequences lead to reduced herbicide and fungicide use in arable farming? Ten-year data on chemical plant protection measures and field management were examined for six field crops. We classified crop sequences (triplets of three succeeding crops) according to their susceptibility for weeds and diseases (= ’riskiness’). The Treatment Frequency Index (TFI) of the last crop in the triplet was set in relation to the crop triplet riskiness, additionally also in combination with tillage. In general, herbicide and fungicide use intensities were smaller in more diverse crop sequences. Diversified cereal sequences, involving roots and tubers, maize or spring cereals were less dependent on herbicides. Cultivation of maize in three subsequent years increased herbicide use. Crop sequences including high proportion of winter cereals increased fungicide use in cereals, while roots and tubers, winter oilseed rape and set-aside in the crop sequence decreased it. In winter oilseed rape, sequences with roots and tubers also increased fungicide use. In sugar beets, sequences with maize or a high concentration of sugar beets led to increasing fungicide use. If farmers chose riskier crop sequences tillage by plough decreased the need for herbicide and fungicide use. To reduce herbicide and fungicide use intensities we recommend increasing the diversity of crop rotations, including a higher number of crops per rotation together with ploughing. Simplifying both crop sequence diversity and tillage intensity implies higher use of herbicides and fungicides. Results will be useful for convincing farmers to diversify crop sequences.

Updated survey of Fusarium species and toxins in Finnish cereal grains

ABSTRACTThe aim of the project was to produce updated information during 2005–14 on the Fusarium species found in Finnish cereal grains, and the toxins produced by them, as the last comprehensive survey study of Fusarium species and their toxins in Finland was carried out at the turn of the 1960s and the 1970s. Another aim was to use the latest molecular and chemical methods to investigate the occurrence and correlation of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in Finland. The most common Fusarium species found in Finland in the FinMyco project 2005 and 2006 were F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. poae, F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae. F. avenaceum was the most dominant species in barley, spring wheat and oat samples. The occurrence of F. culmorum and F. graminearum was high in oats and barley. Infection by Fusarium fungi was the lowest in winter cereal grains. The incidence of Fusarium species in 2005 was much higher than in 2006 due to weather conditions. F. langsethiae has become much more common in Finland since 2001. F. graminearum has also risen in the order of importance. A highly significant correlation was found between Fusarium graminearum DNA and deoxynivalenol (DON) levels in Finnish oats, barley and wheat. When comparing the FinMyco data in 2005–06 with the results of the Finnish safety monitoring programme for 2005–14, spring cereals were noted as being more susceptible to infection by Fusarium fungi and the formation of toxins. The contents of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and the frequency of exceptionally high DON concentrations all increased in Finland during 2005–14. Beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs) and moniliformin (MON) were also very common contaminants of Finnish grains in 2005–06. Climate change is leading to warmer weather, and this may indicate more changes in Finnish Fusarium mycobiota and toxin contents and profiles in the near future.

Canola integration into semi-arid wheat cropping systems of the inland Pacific Northwestern USA

The inland Pacific Northwestern USA (iPNW) wheat-producing region has a diversity of environments and soils, yet it lacks crop diversity and is one of the few semi-arid wheat-growing regions without significant integration of oilseeds. Four major agroecological zones, primarily characterised by water availability, feature distinctly different fallowed and annually cropped systems, each presenting different challenges and opportunities to integrate winter and spring canola. Although major interests in regional energy crops and rotational diversification spurred feasibility research on iPNW canola food, feed and fuel production in the 1970s, commercial canola adaptation has lagged behind other semi-arid wheat regions for various socioeconomic, ecophysiological and agronomic reasons. New federal crop insurance policies will reduce economic risks in new crop adaptation, and oilseed processing facilities are creating new local markets. Although canola management largely relies on wheat farm equipment, agronomic approaches require strategic adjustments to account for physiological differences between canola and cereals including seed size, seedling morphology and responses to temperature extremes. Climate change predictions for the region threaten to exacerbate current hot and dry summers and research aims to develop and adapt flexible winter and spring canola-based systems to regional water and temperature stressors in each zone. Adaptation will require novel planting, fertilisation and weed control strategies to successfully establish improved winter canola cultivars in hot dry summers that survive cold winters, and spring canola cultivars direct-seeded in cool wet springs. The adaptation of winter and spring canola will somewhat mirror the rotational placement of winter and spring cereals within each zone. Economic analysis of oilseed break crop benefits such as weed and disease control will help to demonstrate the medium-term economic benefits of crop diversification to support the growth of a regional canola industry in the iPNW.

СОЛНЕЧНАЯ РАДИАЦИЯ В ОЦЕНКАХ МАКСИМАЛЬНОЙ УРОЖАЙНОСТИ ЯРОВЫХ КУЛЬТУР

Рассмотрен физиолого-метеорологический энергобалансовый подход к оценке прихода к посевам солнечной радиации, включая фотосинтетически активную радиацию (ФАР), и ее использования на фотосинтез, влагопотребление и транспирацию, теплообмен со средой, регуляторно-информационные фотобиологические процессы, фотоморфогенез. Этот подход позволяет определить максимально возможную продуктивность (МВП) и урожайность (МВУ) яровых зерновых культур в оптимальных по другим параметрам условиях роста. Отмечена роль критических радиационных периодов (КРП) в онтогенезе растений и возможность их учета в новых методах агрометеорологических прогнозов урожайности. Проведен расчет прихода ФАР за период от всходов до конца цветения к посевам пшеницы и ячменя для Московской, Курской, Тамбовской, Воронежской, Самарской, Саратовской областей. Показано, что величина МВП может составлять 130–140 ц/га, а МВУ – 38–42 ц/га. В оптимальных условиях более 90% ФАР расходуется на транспирацию (Т); для получения МВП необходимо использовать на Т около 180 мм влаги в 1 м слоя почвы. Так как у пшеницы и ячменя Т осуществляется лишь на свету и пропорциональна газообмену, при снижении запасов продуктивной влаги (ЗПВ) в той же мере снижается Т и газообмен. Рассчитана максимально возможная действительная урожайность: 38–40 ц/га в Московской и Курской, 31–33 ц/га в Тамбовской и Воронежской и около 28 ц/га в Самарской и Саратовской областях. Подчеркивается, что снижение прихода ФАР и ЗПВ снижает газообмен и прирост массы, особенно в критические радиационные периоды онтогенеза, и поэтому учет ФАР важен как для оценки состояния посевов, так и прогноза возможной урожайности.

Root development of fodder radish and winter wheat before winter in relation to uptake of nitrogen

The nitrate (N) present in soil at the end of autumn is prone to leach during winter and spring in temperate climates if not taken up by plants. In Denmark catch crops are used as a regulatory tool to reduce N leaching and therefore a shift from winter cereals to spring cereals with catch crops has occurred. Quantitative data is missing on N leaching of a catch crop compared to a winter cereal in a conventional cereal-based cropping system. The aim of the study was to investigate whether fodder radish (Raphanus sativus L.) (FR) would be more efficient than winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (WW) at depleting the soil of mineral nitrogen (Nmin) before winter. A secondary aim was to study the agreement between three different root measuring methods: root wash (RW), core break (CB) and minirhizotron (MR). The third aim of the was to correlate the N uptake of FR and WW with RLD. An experiment was made to see if and how root growth was affected by the minirhizotron tube. The experiments were conducted on a Danish sandy loam soil. From September to November the amount of soil Nmin decreased from 49kgNha−1 to 14kgNha−1 under FR and increased from 28kgNha−1 to 44kgNha−1 under WW. A test of correlations between root measuring methods showed that there was only a significant positive correlation for FR between CB and RW (R2=0.77) and for WW between CB and MR (R2=0.26). We conclude that FR is more efficient than WW at tightening the N cycle in the autumn by a greater depletion of soil Nmin. From the comparison of root methods, we conclude that root growth in the subsoil was overestimated for FR by the MR method. This was due to preferential root growth along the MR tubes. The root densities/intensities measured with the three root measuring methods were not directly comparable.

Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance thifensulfuron‐methyl

The conclusions of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) following the peer review of the initial risk assessments carried out by the competent authority of the rapporteur Member State the United Kingdom, for the pesticide active substance thifensulfuron-methyl are reported. The context of the peer review was that required by Commission Regulation (EU) No 1141/2010 as amended by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 380/2013. The conclusions were reached on the basis of the evaluation of the representative uses of thifensulfuron-methyl as a herbicide on spring cereals (wheat, barley, oat, rye), winter cereals (wheat, barley, oat, rye, triticale), corn/maize and soybeans. The reliable endpoints concluded as being appropriate for use in regulatory risk assessment, derived from the available studies and literature in the dossier peer reviewed, are presented. Missing information identified as being required by the regulatory framework is listed. Concerns are identified.

Effect of Copper, Zinc and Boron on Green Leaf Retention and Grain Yield of Winter and Spring Cereals

Crop nutrition has a significant effect on disease incidence, resistance or tolerance of various crops. There is currently a lack of reliable recent UK-based research about the effect of copper, zinc and boron on disease incidence, green leaf area (GLA), green leaf retention (GLR) and grain yield of winter wheat, spring wheat and spring barley. Data analysis showed that these trace elements had positive effects on GLR. These positive effects may have been due to the role of copper, zinc and boron in the production of defence related compounds (phenolics and lignin), which may have reduced the disease incidence resulting in prolonged GLR. Grain yield was significantly enhanced by the application of these trace elements on the crop grown on high pH calcareous soil, which can be partly attributed to enhanced GLR. Also trace elements have a positive role in reproductive growth, flowering and male fertility. On average, zinc was found to be the most consistent trace element in terms of enhancing GLR and grain yield. Across all trials, it was noted that for every 10% increase in GLA from trace elements, grain yields increased by 4.2% in 2012-2013, by 4.4% in 2013-2014 in winter wheat and by 3.9% in spring wheat in 2014. These are remarkably consistent and indicate that increasing GLA by 10% by early dough stage was associated with a yield improvement of about 4%. These trace elements also had a positive effect on grain protein content (GPC). This research concluded that the trace elements had positive effects in enhancing GLA and yield. It can be speculated that with the use of these trace elements, there may be more scope for using less robust or reduced rates of fungicides to control foliar diseases, which may help to maximize farm profits.

Correlations between land covers and honey bee colony losses in a country with industrialized and rural regions

High levels of honey bee colony losses were recently reported from Canada, China, Europe, Israel, Turkey and the United States, raising concerns of a global pollinator decline and questioning current land use practices, in particular intense agricultural cropping systems. Sixty-seven crops (data from the years 2010–2012) and 66 mid-term stable land cover classes (data from 2007) were analysed for statistical relationships with the honey bee colony losses experienced over the winters 2010/11–2012/13 in Luxembourg (Western Europe). The area covered by each land cover class, the shortest distance between each land cover class and the respective apiary, the number of plots covered by each land use class and the size of the biggest plot of each land cover class within radii of 2km and 5km around 166 apiaries (2010), 184 apiaries (2011) and 188 apiaries (2012) were tested for correlations with honey bee colony losses (% per apiary) experienced in the winter following the season when the crops were grown. Artificial water bodies, open urban areas, large industrial facilities including heavy industry, railways and associated installations, buildings and installations with socio-cultural purpose, camping-, sports-, playgrounds, golf courts, oilseed crops other than oilseed rape like sunflower or linseed, some spring cereals and former forest clearcuts or windthrows were the land cover classes most frequently associated with high honey bee colony losses. Grain maize, mixed forest and mixed coniferous forest were the land cover classes most frequently associated with low honey bee colony losses. The present data suggest that land covers related to transport, industry and leisure may have made a more substantial contribution to winter honey bee colony losses in developed countries than anticipated so far. Recommendations for the positioning of apiaries are discussed.

Colonisation of winter wheat grain by Fusarium spp. and mycotoxin content as dependent on a wheat variety, crop rotation, a crop management system and weather conditions

Field experiments were conducted during three consecutive growing seasons (2007/08, 2008/09 and 2009/10) with four winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars – ‘Bogatka’, ‘Kris’, ‘Satyna’ and ‘Tonacja’ – grown on fields with a three-field crop rotation (winter triticale, spring barley, winter wheat) and in a four-field crop rotation experiment (spring wheat, spring cereals, winter rapeseed, winter wheat). After the harvest, kernels were surface disinfected with 2% NaOCl and then analysed for the internal infection by different species of Fusarium. Fusaria were isolated on Czapek-Dox iprodione dichloran agar medium and identified on the basis of macro- and micro-morphology on potato dextrose agar and synthetic nutrient agar media. The total wheat grain infection by Fusarium depended mainly on relative humidity (RH) and a rainfall during the flowering stage. Intensive rainfall and high RH in 2009 and 2010 in the period meant the proportions of infected kernels by the fungi were much higher than those in 2008 (lack of precipitation during anthesis). Weather conditions during the post-anthesis period changed the species composition of Fusarium communities internally colonising winter wheat grain. The cultivars significantly varied in the proportion of infected kernels by Fusarium spp. The growing season and type of crop rotation had a distinct effect on species composition of Fusarium communities colonising the grain inside. A trend of a higher percentage of the colonised kernels by the fungi in the grain from the systems using more fertilisers and pesticides as well as the buried straw could be perceived. The most frequent species in the grain were F. avenaceum, F. tricinctum and F. poae in 2008, and F. avenaceum, F. graminearum, F. tricinctum and F. poae in 2009 and 2010. The contents of deoxynivalenol and zearalenon in the grain were correlated with the percentage of kernels colonised by F. graminearum and were the highest in 2009 in the grain from the four-field crop rotation. The content of T-2/HT-2 toxins was the highest in 2010 in grain from the three-field crop rotation and it was correlated with the isolation frequency of F. langsethiae.

Yield of spring cereals in mixed stands with undersown winter turnip rape

Winter turnip rape [Brassica rapa L. ssp. oleifera (DC.) Metzg.] is an oilseed crucifer mainly grown in Nordic and Baltic countries. It can be undersown in a spring cereal as an alternative to sowing of pure stand in late July. Establishment by undersowing helps to utilize the short growing season at high latitudes. However, as undersown crops tend to affect the growth and yield of their companion crops, the effect of undersown winter turnip rape on cereal yield and quality needs to be assessed. Additionally, an evaluation of the suitability of different cereals as companion crops to winter turnip rape is required before practical recommendations can be made. The suitability of four spring cereals as companion crops to winter turnip rape was studied in three field experiments. Two-row barley, six-row barley, wheat and oat were sown at two different densities, with and without undersown winter turnip rape, sowing density depending on the density of the cereal. Undersowing winter turnip rape in a cereal did not markedly affect cereal yield. In some years six-row barley and oat with undersown winter turnip rape produced more yield than corresponding pure stands, indicating a possible facilitative effect of the undersown crucifer on the two cereal species. The results suggest that the most compatible cereals as companion crops with undersown winter turnip rape are six-row barley and oat. Mixed stand cultivation could be improved trough the identification of the optimal cereal–winter turnip rape combinations.

Degradation rate of soil function varies with trajectory of agricultural intensification

Efforts to maintain or increase food production in developed agriculture would be compromised if current high-intensity production was degrading supporting ecosystem services, such as the ability of soil to function. The link between cropping intensity, defined by pesticide and fertiliser applications, and soil biophysical status was examined at 70 sites in a high-yielding region of the UK, in which cropping sequences covering a wide range of intensity had diverged from a common low-intensity origin in the 1970s. Two sequences of still low or moderate intensity based on spring cereals or a low frequency of winter cereals formed comparators for three high intensity sequences based on winter wheat and potato which together were associated with adverse effects of −30% on soil carbon content in the upper soil layer (P<0.001), −11% on soil water holding capacity (P<0.01) and +15% on soil bulk density (P<0.001). Negative effects were also found in some high intensity sequences on soil macroporosity and penetrometer resistance. Even in this high-yielding region, therefore, current forms of intensification are associated with adverse trends in soil condition that may be detrimental to future production. The effects of these trends in soil condition on agricultural output now need to be quantified, and the economic burden accounted for, if fields reduce their capacity to yield or need reparation to keep them productive.

Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance halauxifen‐methyl (XDE‐729 methyl)

The conclusions of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) following the peer review of the initial risk assessments carried out by the competent authority of the rapporteur Member State United Kingdom for the pesticide active substance halauxifen-methyl are reported. The context of the peer review was that required by Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council. The conclusions were reached on the basis of the evaluation of the representative uses of halauxifen-methyl as a herbicide on winter cereals (soft wheat, durum wheat, spelt, barley, rye, triticale) and spring cereals (wheat, barley, durum wheat and rye). The reliable endpoints concluded as being appropriate for use in regulatory risk assessment, derived from the available studies and literature in the dossier peer reviewed, are presented. Missing information identified as being required by the regulatory framework is listed. Concerns are identified.

Effect of temperature and precipitation on nitrate leaching from organic cereal cropping systems in Denmark

The effect of variation in seasonal temperature and precipitation on soil water nitrate (NO3N) concentration and leaching from winter and spring cereals cropping systems was investigated over three consecutive four-year crop rotation cycles from 1997 to 2008 in an organic farming crop rotation experiment in Denmark. Three experimental sites, varying in climate and soil type from coarse sand to sandy loam, were investigated. The experiment included experimental treatments with different rotations, manure rate and cover crop, and soil nitrate concentrations was monitored using suction cups. The effects of climate, soil and management were examined in a linear mixed model, and only parameters with significant effect (P<0.05) were included in the final model. The model explained 61% and 47% of the variation in the square root transform of flow-weighted annual NO3N concentration for winter and spring cereals, respectively, and 68% and 77% of the variation in the square root transform of annual NO3N leaching for winter and spring cereals, respectively. Nitrate concentration and leaching were shown to be site specific and driven by climatic factors and crop management. There were significant effects on annual N concentration and NO3N leaching of location, rotation, previous crop and crop cover during autumn and winter. The relative effects of temperature and precipitation differed between seasons and cropping systems. A sensitivity analysis revealed that the predicted N concentration and leaching increased with increases in temperature and precipitation.

The abiotic stress response and adaptation of triticale — A review

After a decade of genetic manipulation and improvement, triticale stand out as a crop of high biomass and grain yield potential which generally surpass that of wheat. Its high productivity is most likely derived from high rates of carbon assimilation linked to stomatal physiology and probably low respiration rate. Being a derivative of rye, triticale has always been assumed to be relatively resistant to abiotic stress. The last review of triticale adaptation to abiotic stress as published by Jessop (1996) pointed at its general and specific fitness to harsh growing conditions. This review as based on additional data published in the last 20 years indicates that triticale retain good to excellent adaptation to conditions of limited water supply and problem soils which involve salinity, low pH, defined mineral toxicities and deficiencies and waterlogging. Despite the understandable expectations, freezing tolerance of triticale was not found to be up to the level of rye. The freezing tolerance of the rye complement in triticale is inhibited by unknown factors on the wheat parent genome. Any given triticale cultivar or selection cannot be taken a priori as being stress resistant. Research has repeatedly shown that triticale presented large genetic diversity for abiotic stress resistance and most likely this diversity has not yet been fully explored due to the very limited research and the small studied sample of the potential triticale germplasm. Triticale is a valuable stress tolerant cereal on its own accord and a potential genetic resource for breeding winter and spring cereals. Because of its high productivity and resilience it might become as important as wheat or better on a global scale if its grain technological quality will be improved to the level of wheat.

Combined waste resources as compound fertiliser to spring cereals

There is increasing awareness of the need for efficient nutrient recycling in food production. Therefore, a pot experiment was conducted to contribute to the development of alternative compound fertilisers with balanced nutrient ratios for cereal production. We compared the (1) fertilisation effects and (2) effects on soil chemistry of four organic nitrogen (N)- and phosphorous (P)-rich waste-based products (WBPs), applied with or without potassium (K)-rich bottom wood ash (BWA). WBPs and BWA were applied at two rates (80 kg N ha−1 + 35 kg K ha−1 and 160 kg N ha−1 + 70 kg K ha−1) to spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) in year one and spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) in year two, and the effects were compared with those of commercial mineral and organic compound fertilisers. The K fertilisation effects of BWA were masked by the soil's ability to provide plant-available K during both years of the experiment. Plant-available N was, therefore, the growth-limiting factor for barley in year one, when there were no differences in grain yield between treatments with and without K-rich BWA. The mineral fertiliser equivalent of WBPs was 64–118% for N uptake in barley grain, but can be expected to be lower under field conditions. During year two, wheat yield was determined by the plant availability of P and N. Meat-rich meat and bone meal caused P deficiency at the lower application rate as a result of alkaline soil conditions, whereas the P in BWA appeared to be almost as plant-available as soluble mineral P.

Effects of pig and dairy slurry application on N and P leaching from crop rotations with spring cereals and forage leys

Two crop rotations dominated by spring cereals and grass/clover leys on a clay soil were studied over 2 years with respect to nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) leaching associated with pig or dairy slurry application in April, June and October. Leaching losses of total N (TN), total P (TP), nitrate-N and dissolved reactive P (DRP) were determined in separately tile-drained field plots (four replicates). Mean annual DRP leaching after October application of dairy slurry (17 kg P ha−1) to growing grass/clover was 0.37 kg ha−1. It was significantly higher than after October application of pig slurry (13 kg ha−1) following spring cereals (0.16 kg ha−1) and than in the unfertilised control (0.07 kg P ha−1). The proportion of DRP in TP in drainage water from the grass/clover crop rotation (35 %) was higher than from the spring cereal rotation (25 %) and the control (14 %). The grass/clover rotation proved to be very robust with respect to N leaching, with mean TN leaching of 10.5 kg ha−1 year−1 compared with 19.2 kg ha−1 year−1 from the cereal crop rotation. Pig slurry application after cereals in October resulted in TN leaching of 25.7 kg ha−1 compared with 7.0 kg ha−1 year−1 after application to grass/clover in October and 19.1 kg ha−1 year−1 after application to spring cereals in April. In conclusion, these results show that crop rotations dominated by forage leys need special attention with respect to DRP leaching and that slurry application should be avoided during wet conditions or combined with methods to increase adsorption of P to soil particles.