Spray Operators Research Articles

Testing a cumulative and aggregate exposure model using biomonitoring studies and dietary records for Italian vineyard spray operators

The need for improved tools to estimate the cumulative and aggregate exposure to compounds such as plant protection products (PPPs) is recognised in the EU Regulation 1107/2009. A new model has been developed to estimate the exposure within a population to single compounds or compounds within a Cumulative Action Group, considering dietary and non-dietary sources and multiple exposure routes. To test the model a field study was carried out in Italy with operators applying tebuconazole fungicides, with measurements of dermal exposure collected. Whole urine samples were collected and analysed to provide values for the absorbed dose of tebuconazole, with duplicate diet samples collected and analysed as a measure of dietary exposures. The model provided predicted values of exposure for combined dietary and non-dietary routes of exposures which were compared to the measured absorbed dose values based on urinary analysis. The model outputs provided mean daily exposure values of 1.77 (±1.96) µg a.s./kg BW which are comparable to measured mean values from the biomonitoring field study of 1.73 (±1.31) µg a.s./kg BW. To supplement the limited measurement data available, comparisons against other models were also made and found to be comparable.

A European model and case studies for aggregate exposure assessment of pesticides

Exposures to plant protection products (PPPs) are assessed using risk analysis methods to protect public health. Traditionally, single sources, such as food or individual occupational sources, have been addressed. In reality, individuals can be exposed simultaneously to multiple sources. Improved regulation therefore requires the development of new tools for estimating the population distribution of exposures aggregated within an individual. A new aggregate model is described, which allows individual users to include as much, or as little, information as is available or relevant for their particular scenario. Depending on the inputs provided by the user, the outputs can range from simple deterministic values through to probabilistic analyses including characterisations of variability and uncertainty. Exposures can be calculated for multiple compounds, routes and sources of exposure. The aggregate model links to the cumulative dietary exposure model developed in parallel and is implemented in the web-based software tool MCRA.Case studies are presented to illustrate the potential of this model, with inputs drawn from existing European data sources and models. These cover exposures to UK arable spray operators, Italian vineyard spray operators, Netherlands users of a consumer spray and UK bystanders/residents. The model could also be adapted to handle non-PPP compounds.

Spray drift as influenced by meteorological and technical factors

The objective of this study was to investigate spray drift from a conventional field sprayer as influenced by meteorological and technical factors, and to provide spray operators with data on which to base sound judgements when applying pesticides. The study was conducted in grazing fields and cereal crops. Interpreting the results from 15 field trials under varying meteorological conditions using different boom heights and driving speeds indicates that, during normal spraying conditions, the most decisive factors influencing the total spray drift (TSD) will be boom height and wind speed, followed by air temperature, driving speed and vapour pressure deficit. One important finding was that TSD (within the encompassed range of meteorological conditions and a boom height of 0.4 m) could be expressed as a simple function of the fraction of droplets ≤ 100 µm. In cereal crops: TSD = 0.36 + 0.11× [fr. (d ≤ 100 µm)] and in grazing fields, TSD = 1.02 + 0.10× [fr. (d ≤ 100 µm)]. In most cases a fraction of the airborne drift passed over the 6 m sampling mast located 5 m downwind of the spray swath. Under specified conditions, the present results indicate a simple relation between the total spray drift and volume fractions of droplets ≤ 100 µm. Given the nozzle type, it was concluded that the most decisive factors determining TSD are wind speed and boom height. Evaluating the relative importance of the meteorological and technical factors contributes to increasing knowledge in this field of research.

DDT and Malaria Prevention: van den Berg Responds

DDT and Malaria Prevention: van den Berg Responds

Causes and types of health effects during the use of crop protection chemicals: data from a survey of over 6,300 smallholder applicators in 24 different countries

PurposeThe present investigation looks in detail at the causes and types of health incidents reported by 6,300 mainly smallholder agrochemical users in 24 countries during 2005 and 2006.MethodsThe investigation is based on a questionnaire survey of knowledge, attitude and practice that concentrated on the sequence of events from purchasing the pesticide to disposal. Information was also collected about health problems experienced while using agrochemicals. The survey targeted mainly smallholder knapsack spray operators who were expected to be at a highest risk of exposure.ResultsIn the 12 months prior to interview, 1.2% of users reported an agrochemical-related incident that required hospital treatment, 5.8% reported an incident requiring at least trained medical treatment but not hospitalisation and 19.8% reported only a minor sign or symptom. Users who had experienced an incident involving agricultural equipment were 3.38 (95% CI 2.29–4.99) times more likely to experience an agrochemical-related health incident, but confident users who felt that their use of personal protective equipment while spraying was best practice were 0.60 (95% CI 0.44–0.84) times less likely to experience such an incident. Over 80% of product-related incidents were caused by insecticides and the incidence rate per spraying time for incidents linked to insecticides was significantly higher than that for fungicides or herbicides. Headache/dizziness and nausea/vomiting, often smell related, were the most common symptoms reported by users who listed agrochemical products that had caused them health problems (52 and 38% of product mentions, respectively).ConclusionsIn most countries, the incidence of serious health effects was low; however, there was a high incidence of minor signs and symptoms in a few countries, especially in Africa. A disproportionate number of incidents occurred during insecticide use relative to the time that they were sprayed. Failure to exercise caution as indicated by whether users had incidents involving agricultural equipment or livestock, and lack of confidence in their practices were the most important predictors of agrochemical-related incidents.

Inhalational and dermal exposures during spray application of biocides

Data on inhalational and potential dermal exposures during spray application of liquid biocidal products were generated. On the one hand, model experiments with different spraying devices using fluorescent tracers were carried out to investigate the influence of parameters relevant to the exposure (e.g. spraying equipment, nozzle size, direction of application). On the other hand, measurements were performed at selected workplaces (during disinfection operations in food and feed areas; pest control operations for private, public and veterinary hygiene; wood protection and antifouling applications) after application of biocidal products such as Empire 20, Responsar SC, Omexan-forte, Actellic, Perma-forte; Fendona SC, Pyrethrum mist; CBM 8, Aldekol Des 03, TAD CID, Basileum, Basilit. The measurements taken in the model rooms demonstrated dependence of the inhalation exposure on the type of spraying device used, in the following order: “spraying with low pressure”<“airless spraying”<“fogging” indicating that the particle diameter of the released spray droplets is the most important parameter. In addition inhalation exposure was lowest when the spraying direction was downward. Also for the potential dermal exposure, the spraying direction was of particular importance: overhead spraying caused the highest contamination of body surfaces. The data of inhalational and potential dermal exposures gained through workplace measurements showed considerable variation. During spraying procedures with low-pressure equipments, dose rates of active substances inhaled by the operators ranged from 7 to 230 μg active substance (a.s.)/h. An increase in inhaled dose rates (6–33 mg a.s./h) was observed after use of high application volumes/time unit during wood protection applications indoors. Spraying in the veterinary sector using medium-pressure sprayers led to inhaled dose rates between 2 and 24 mg a.s./h. The highest inhaled dose rates were measured during fogging (114 mg a.s./h) and after-high-pressure applications in the antifouling sector (110–300 mg a.s./h). The potential dermal exposure of spray operators was lowest (dose rates from 0.2 to 7 mg a.s./h) in the areas of food and feed disinfection and private and public hygiene during spraying with low-pressure devices. During fogging, wood protection and antifouling applications, high-potential dermal exposures of the operators were determined. Dermal dose rates varied between 100 and 34,000 mg a.s./h.

Dissipation of three organochlorine and four pyrethroid pesticides sprayed in a greenhouse environment during hydroponic cultivation of gerbera

A wide range of pesticides (insecticides, acaricides and fungicides) is used in the hydroponic cultivation of gerbera. The fate and behaviour of some of these commonly used pesticides (organochlorine and pyrethroid insecticides/acaricides) in a greenhouse installation was investigated. The concentrations of endosulfan, dicofol, tetradifon, permethrin, bifenthrin, cypermethrin and deltamethrin in the air of the greenhouse were related to their physicochemical properties and respective application rates. Of these compounds, endosulfan exhibited the highest concentration in the greenhouse air 2 h after application (10 microg m(-3)), due to its highest volatility; afterwards, up to 12 h post-application, a rapid decrease was recorded which finally led to a concentration of 0.41 microg m(-3) at 6 days post-application. Dicofol exhibited the same trend of dissipation in the greenhouse air; its concentration decreased from 0.27 microg m(-3) immediately after the application to 0.12 microg m(-3) at 6 days post-application. Tetradifon, bifenthrin and permethrin were found at concentrations lower than 0.1 microg m(-3) at 2 h post-application, and cypermethrin and deltamethrin could not be detected. The concentrations of all the above pesticides in the drain water of the open hydroponic system were relatively high immediately after application and decreased rapidly during the following 3 days. In the closed hydroponic system, all the pesticides accumulated in the nutrient solution during the first 24 h after application and slowly decreased in concentration over the following 3 days. The spray operators applying these pesticides were exposed to rather high concentrations and the spray deposits were monitored on the chest and forehead of the operator. Endosulfan exhibited the highest concentrations of the seven pesticides. The organochlorine pesticides (endosulfan, dicofol and tetradifon) were usually detected at higher concentrations on the chest than on the forehead of the operator; pyrethroids were detected at higher concentrations on the forehead than on the chest of the operator.

Enhancing malaria control using a computerised management system in southern Africa

BackgroundMalaria control programmes utilising indoor residual spraying are only effective if a high coverage of targeted structures is achieved and an insecticide that is effective against the specific mosquito vector is correctly applied. Ongoing monitoring of spraying operations is essential to assure optimal programme performance and early corrective action, where indicated.MethodsSuccessful development and application of a computerised spraying operations management system in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa during 1998 resulted in its adaptation and introduction in neighbouring Maputo Province, southern Mozambique during 2000. The structure and components of this computerised management system are described, and its' operational benefit in southern Mozambique, where community-based spray operators apply intradomiciliary insecticide, are reviewed.ConclusionsThe computerised management system allowed malaria programme management and field supervisors to monitor spraying coverage, insecticide consumption and application rates on an ongoing basis. The system supported a successful transition to community-based spraying, while assuring correct insecticide application and spraying completion according to schedule.

Work with pesticides and organophosphate sheep dips.

Pesticides are an important hazard in agriculture. In developed countries their use is strictly regulated. Risk assessment for new pesticides includes comparison of the potential exposures of spray operators and other farm workers with a reference value. Usually, this is derived from toxicological studies in animals with allowance for the uncertainties in extrapolating between and within species. Older pesticides undergo periodic reviews, for which epidemiological data may also be available. Unintentional fatal poisoning by pesticides is extremely rare in Britain. Documented reports of non-fatal acute poisoning are also uncommon, but there may be substantial under-ascertainment of minor incidents. Pesticides have been linked with various chronic diseases, but few associations have been clearly established. A particular concern recently in Britain has been the possibility that organophosphate insecticides can cause chronic neuropsychiatric illness.

Health Effects of Pesticide Use Among Indonesian Women Farmers

ABSTRACT This retrospective cohort of 161 female spray operators and 352 age-matched women rice farmer controls was conducted in West Sumatra Indonesia. It was designed to assess the reproductive impacts of pesticide use. Exposure was determined through detailed field observations and interviews about historical pesticide use. Data was gathered on socio-economic characteristics, maternal health risk factors and reproductive outcomes by teams of local midwives trained for the study. Reproductive outcomes were compared between the exposed and nonexposed cohorts as well as those pregnancies among the sprayers before and after commencing pesticide use. The rates of stillbirths, abortions, early neonatal deaths, and low birth weight were not greater among the pesticide users. Although there were more cases of undocumented birth defects, the difference was not significant. Controlling for other independently associated maternal risk factors and socio-economic factors did not alter the results.

Health Effects of Pesticide Use Among Indonesian Women Farmers

ABSTRACT This retrospective cohort of 161 female spray operators and 352 age-matched women rice farmer controls was conducted in West Sumatra Indonesia. It was designed to assess the reproductive impacts of pesticide use. Exposure was determined through detailed field observations and interviews about historical pesticide use. Data was gathered on socio-economic characteristics, maternal health risk factors and reproductive outcomes by teams of local midwives trained for the study. Reproductive outcomes were compared between the exposed and nonexposed cohorts as well as those pregnancies among the sprayers before and after commencing pesticide use. The rates of stillbirths, abortions, early neonatal deaths, and low birth weight were not greater among the pesticide users. Although there were more cases of undocumented birth defects, the difference was not significant. Controlling for other independently associated maternal risk factors and socio-economic factors did not alter the results.

Imidazole fungicides provoke histamine release from mast cells and induce airway contraction

The effects of imidazole fungicides on rat mast cells and on guinea-pig airway smooth muscle contraction were studied. The dose-effect studies on mast cells were performed to prove our hypothesis that imidazole fungicides are potential histamine releasing agents and thus may induce bronchoconstriction in vivo. Indeed, all imidazole fungicides tested (i. e. ketoconazole, miconazole, prochloraz) and an agricultural formulation of prochloraz (i. e. Sportak) were able to elicit histamine release from mast cells in the concentration range of 30-300 microM, although there were marked differences in potency and efficacy. The in vivo experiments clearly showed that inhaled Sportak aerosols induce a significant bronchoconstriction in guinea-pigs. Moreover, after a single 5 min exposure to Sportak aerosols the animals developed airway hyperreactivity against histamine. From the results of our study it may be concluded that certain imidazole fungicides provoke histamine release by a non-immunological mechanism, induce airway constriction in guinea-pigs and hence may be harmful to spray operators who might inhale fungicide aerosols used for plant protection.

Paraquat Exposure of Knapsack Spray Operators on Banana Plantations in Costa Rica.

A study of occupational exposure to paraquat was performed among 11 knapsack spray operators at banana plantations in Costa Rica. External and internal exposures were quantified and determinants of exposure identified by measurements, observations, and interviews. Dermal exposure was measured with skin pads, respiratory exposure by personal air sampling, and internal exposure by urine sampling. The wrists, back, and legs were the areas with the highest levels of dermal exposure. Respiratory exposures appeared to be strongly influenced by differences between days, while dermal exposures varied mostly due to differences between plantations. The use of protective clothing did not effectively protect against dermal exposures. Both respiratory and dermal exposures were significantly related to internal exposures, and both should be considered possible routes for systemic absorption of paraquat. It cannot be excluded that measurable levels of exposure can lead to acute as well as chronic health effects. Furthermore, due to poor conditions within the working environment, the spray operators are continuously at risk for high exposures that could lead to severe intoxication, and therefore a strategy for control of exposure is necessary.

Knapsack sprayer calibration: Perception of swath width and problems of computation

Abstract A trial was conducted to evaluate people's perception and measurement of the swath widths produced by a spray nozzle held at three different heights above the ground whilst spraying. Nineteen individuals, having no previous experience of pesticide application, consistently underestimated the swath width compared with measurements made by three experienced spray operators. Half of another 22 participants failed to calculate correctly the amount of pesticide required to spray a 1 ha field, but all but one individual successfully made up a 20% solution of a hypothetical pesticide mixture. The results suggest that more detail on the measurement of swath widths is required in instruction manuals, and that training courses need to take particular account of the inability of many operators to perform simple calculations.

Effect of application volume and method on spray operator contamination by insecticide during cotton spraying

The contamination of spray operators was assessed using a fluorescent dye recovery technique with disposable polymer fabric overalls. Eight different application volumes, ranging from 0.9 to 110 l ha −1, were used with a variety of sprayer types including two types of lever-operated knapsack sprayer, a mistblower, a spinning-disc machine and an electrostatic sprayer. Total operator contamination during spray operations on a mature cotton crop was found to be dependent on the type of sprayer and application volume used: it was highest for water-based very-low-volume sprays (6–12 l ha −1) applied by mistblower and a non-motorized sprayer and lowest for conventional applications (30–110 l ha −1) with non-motorized sprayers. The distribution of contamination over an operator's protective clothing varied with the sprayer type: with non-motorized sprayers the abdomen was the most heavily affected area; contamination from electrostatic and spinning-disc machines was more evenly dispersed. It was concluded that contamination occurring during the normal application of sprays is of minimal significance when compared with contamination caused by leaking and damaged sprayers.

Studies on the pharmacokinetics and mutagenic potential of rhodamine b

Rhodamine B is used as a marker dye in herbicide sprays. There is evidence that spray operators and others may absorb rhodamine B through the skin. This study was undertaken to investigate the in vivo mutagenicity of rhodamine B, to compare the in vitro mutagenicity of two commercial preparations of the dye with that of known mutagens including rhodamine 6G and to elucidate the pharmacokinetics of rhodamine B in the rabbit. Following the i.v. treatment of adult female New Zealand White rabbits with rhodamine B (1 mg/kg body wt), the plasma concentration of rhodamine B decreased rapidly and was accompanied by the appearance of at least four fluorescent polar metabolites. These metabolites, as well as a very small amount of rhodamine B, were also present in the urine which, when tested in the Ames assay was not significantly mutagenic against Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98 and TA100 either with or without metabolic activation. Urine from a human subject who had been contaminated with marker dye was also non-mutagenic. Both commercial preparations of rhodamine B were found to be weakly mutagenic, using the same assay system. It is concluded that while appropriate hygiene measures should be exercised by users of products containing this dye, the results do not support the hypothesis that rhodamine B is a genotoxic hazard in the mammalian organism.

Recent developments in the application machinery for insect pest management, with particular reference to small scale farmers in the tropics

A diverse number of insects cause damage and loss to crops in the tropics. Timely and appropriate control measures are necessary if crop losses and hardship to both farmers and the population at large are to be avoided. To many farmers one of the most effective control measures is often the application of insecticides. The efficiency of insect control with insecticides is largely influenced by a judicious choice of the insecticide and the application equipment. There is therefore a need for the development of appropriate and evaluation of new and existing spray application equipment. Developments of some spray equipments since the late 1960s and their efficacy in the field are discussed. The main advantages of ultra-low volume (ULV) over some electrostatic sprayers are the application of a wide range of insecticides and formulations and better penetration to lower plant parts. The main advantages of electrostatic sprayers are the application of insecticides at extremely low volumes and low energy requirements with some sprayers. The advantages of the hydraulic nozzle sprayers are the even deposition of spray over all plant parts, although logistically the system is inefficient compared to the other systems. All systems contaminate spray operators during spraying but the exact level of contamination will depend on the concentration, droplet size and formulation of the insecticide.

Controle da transmissão da doença de Chagas, pelo combate aos vetores, com bendiocarb, feito pelos habitantes

Experimentamos o novo inseticida bendiocarb para o combate ao Panstrongylus megistus, principal vetor da doença de Chagas, em uma área endêmica do Estado da Bahia, Brasil. Uma das partes da experiência constou da aplicação de 0,4 g/m² de bendiocarb a 80% pelas equipes de guardas borrifadores oficiais. A taxa de infestação das casas foi reduzida de 18% para 7%, seis meses após a aplicação do inseticida, e a densidade de P. megistus caiu de 7 para 1,5 exemplares por hora. A outra parte constou da utilização da mão-de-obra dos habitantes na inspeção de suas casas para triatomíneos, da aplicação por meio de uma pequena bomba manual, de bendiocarb a 20%, sempre que observassem triatomíneos. A taxa de infestação das casas foi reduzida de 48% para 14% e a densidade de P. megistus caiu de 12 para menos de 1 exemplar por hora. Apesar da concentração mais fraca, o bendiocarb aplicado com a colaboração da população, apresentou resultados mais eficientes, provavelmente devido à constante vigilância com que ficou a área, havendo conseqüentemente, maior freqüência na aplicação do inseticida. O método de combate aos vetores com a participação da população mostrou-se mais eficiente e menos dispendioso. Dessa forma, se adotado pelos serviços de combate às endemias no Brasil, talvez venha a ser a solução para a descontinuidade das campanhas contra a doença de Chagas.

Studies of the occupational exposure of Malaysian plantation workers to paraquat.

Studies carried out on the occupational exposure to paraquat of plantation workers in Malaysia comprised quantitative estimates of dermal and respiratory exposure of knapsack spray operators, carriers, and rubber tappers operating under their normal working conditions. Spray operators have been shown to be dermally exposed to paraquat by walking through recently sprayed vegetation and into their own spray, regular adjustment and unblocking of spray nozzles and leakage, and overfilling of knapsack spray tanks. Carriers also received measurable dermal exposure from walking through recently sprayed vegetation and accidental spillage when carrying and loading. The infrequent and negligible dermal exposure of tappers resulted from walking through recently sprayed vegetation. Determinations of the total airborne paraquat concentrations in the breathing zone show that spray operators and carriers are exposed to an order of 1% or less of the current TLV for respirable paraquat. No paraquat was detected in the breathing zones of tappers working in simultaneously sprayed blocks. The calculated ranges of dermal and respiratory exposures, when compared with published data on both the exposure to, and the toxicity of, paraquat, indicate that there should be no toxicological risk to any of the three groups studied as a result of using paraquat.

Kremlin Airmix solves Hoover Production Problem

Hoover Ltd.'s production engineers at the Merthyr Tydfil works have recently overcome a paint production problem which had caused uncomfortable working conditions for the paint spray operators.