Sport Psychology Research Articles

Optimizing sports performance in China: Investigating the influence of training, recovery, motivation, and environmental support within a moderation-mediation framework

The expansion of sports in China is astounding. Given the country's focus on athletic achievement, it is crucial to comprehend the different facets of sports. This research examines China's athletic success in training, recuperation, motivation, and environment. The moderation-mediation strategy is used to understand how these variables affect athletic performance. This study fills a gap in understanding Chinese players' on-field performance. The study examined 355 Chinese athletes from various regions and sports. The sample has a balanced gender distribution, diverse age distribution, and representation from various regions. Furthermore, training programs, recovery strategies, motivation, psychological well-being, support systems, and experience levels influence athletes' sports performance. The study reveals that the coefficients indicate that training, recuperation tactics, motivation, and support systems affect athletic performance. Psychological health emerges as a critical mediator in explaining the effects of these factors on performance outcomes. Additionally, athlete experience moderates the influence of these variables, highlighting nuanced differences. These findings offer crucial insights for enhancing the performance of Chinese athletes. By adopting a moderation-mediation approach, this research illuminates the interconnected dynamics among key components, enriching our understanding of avenues for athlete improvement. Specifically, the results underscore the interconnectedness of athletes' psychological well-being, on-field experience, and competitive performance, emphasizing the importance of tailored interventions. This study could help Chinese politicians, sports psychologists, and coaches enhance athletes' performance.

Psychological Skill of University Basketball Athletes in Each Playing Position in Indonesia

The role of psychological skills in sport is one of the cores of research and practice in sports psychology. Even if there is, especially in basketball sport, it is limited to an overview of the physical aspects. For this reason, this research was aimed of examining whether there is a difference in psychological skills of basketball athletes in each playing position based on five playing positions, namely point guard, shooting guard, small forward, power forward, and center. The study was conducted using a quantitative descriptive method with a retrospective causal-comparative design, or ex-post facto design, on 100 basketball athletes from seven provinces spread across 31 universities in Indonesia, consisting of 38 male athletes and 62 female athletes. All collected data were analyzed using one way-ANOVA technique. The results of the analysis found that there were differences in the psychological skills of university basketball athletes in each playing position of in Indonesia. According to the results of the analysis for psychological skills by playing position in Indonesian university basketball athletes in Table 3, (F(4,99) = 3.483, significant at p = 0.011 <0.05. The point guard position shows the highest psychological characteristics, while the lowest score is occupied by the small forward position. Coaches can use the results of this study to better understand the psychological characteristics of athletes in different playing positions as well as developing more appropriate types of psychological skills training interventions to each playing position.

Comparison of Sports Aggression among Cricket Players of Kerala and Madhya Pradesh

This study was conducted to Compare the Sports Aggression level Among the National LevelCricket Players of Kerala And Madhya Pradesh. In this study as the subject’s Under- 16, Under-19 Seniorcricket players of Madhya Pradesh Kerala were chosen as the subjects. 120 cricket players from Keralaand Madhya Pradesh who had represented their state team in various National tournaments were selectedfor this study. A total of 60 among the whole sample consist of Kerala Players (U-16 – 20, U-19 - 20 Senior- 20) and the remaining 60 are from Madhya Pradesh. For comparing the Sports Aggression levelamong the cricket players of Kerala and Madhya Pradesh - Sports Aggression Inventory was used. It wasconstructed and standardized by Anand Kumar and Prem Shankar Shukla. The questionnaire was filledby the players of Kerala and Madhya Pradesh. For the evaluation of the questionnaires Two-way ANOVAwas employed and findings revealed that, both the states have significant influence on SportsAggression. The players of Under-16, Under-19 and Senior category of Madhya Pradesh has less SportsAggression in comparison with the players of Kerala players. When we see within the state of MP theAggression level of the Under-16, Under-19 Senior players possess almost same level. But theAggression level of the Senior Players from Kerala were significantly different than the other categoryplayers. By the help of Sports Psychology, and the assessment of Aggression level of players orindividuals’ performance in cricket not only demands systematic training to develop physical andphysiological variables but also demands training and considerations of psychological characteristics forthe success in this field.

Longitudinal trajectories of intensity and direction of emotions among athletes in sports competitions: do defense mechanisms matter?

ABSTRACT Objectives This study explored whether several subgroups of athletes representing distinct trajectories of intensity and direction of pleasant and unpleasant emotions (anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, and happiness) could be shown to exist within the latent growth analysis (LCGA). A secondary objective was to examine whether athletes belonging to distinct trajectories of intensity and direction of emotions reported distinct scores of adaptive defense mechanisms (ADM) and maladaptive defense mechanisms (MDM). Design A longitudinal four-wave measurement design was used in the present study. Method 380 athletes completed the sports emotion questionnaire direction across four measurement times and the defense style questionnaire at the beginning of the season. Results Results of LCGAs revealed several distinct emotional trajectories for each emotion intensity and emotion direction. Moreover, athletes belonging to distinct (adaptive or maladaptive) trajectories reported significantly different scores of ADM and MDM. Higher scores of ADM were reported by athletes belonging to adaptive trajectories of the direction of emotions. Conclusions Sports psychologists should try to promote ADM and defensive flexibility to help athletes perceive their emotions as facilitative.

Establishing causal inferences from experimental and observational data: A critical review and primer for sport and exercise psychology.

Establishing causal inferences from experimental and observational data: A critical review and primer for sport and exercise psychology.

Comparison of anxiety levels of individual and group athletes

The study of anxiety, particularly its relationship to sociodemographic variables, has been fruitful in sport psychology research. This study aims to determine the comparison of athletes' anxiety with the variables of gender differences and the type of sport played (individual/group). The application of structural equation modeling has been carried out on 80 Indonesian athletes. Of this number, 40 (50%) are female athletes and 40 (50%) are male athletes. They compete in a variety of individual sports (swimming, rock climbing; 50%) and team sports (basketball, volleyball; 50%). Athletes' ages ranged from 20-25 years (M = 22 years; SD = 4.99). After testing the measurement invariance of the first- and second-order models, across gender and sport type (individual vs. team), latent mean comparisons were investigated and statistics were calculated to obtain appropriate effect sizes. Significant differences were detected between male and female athletes as well as between individual and team sports. Female and individual sports athletes have higher levels of general sports anxiety. The results of this study provide evidence that anxiety is assessed differently by athletes based on gender and type of sport. Keywords: Athlete anxiety; gender differences in sports; individual vs. team sports; sports psychology research; structural equation modeling in sports;

An Athlete-Centered Career Assistance Intervention Program for the Chinese Sport System: Reflections Into Polyphonics

The aim through this manuscript is to share our career intervention situated in individual, group, and meta-reflective practice, to help elite athletes manage changes in their careers and support their autonomy and development within the Chinese Whole Nation System (CWNS). Translating findings from a science to practice project, we provide an athlete-centered reflective intervention integrating the perspectives of sport psychology practitioners (SPPs), coaches, athletes, and parents from a Chinese collective vantage. First, we introduce how athlete career transition scholarship and theoretical frameworks guided this intervention. Second, we explain how different levels of reflective practice can be used as a part of a career intervention. Third, we provide a brief summary of recent research project from which the intervention was derived, and fourth, we describe a six-step intervention to inform future implementations.

Toward a more culturally nuanced approach to assessing athletic and exercise identities in sport psychology research: a confirmatory factor analysis approach with South Korean male student-athletes

ABSTRACT The identities of “athlete” and “exerciser” share conceptual similarities but can be differentiated by the ways in which their respective objectives, motivations, and intentions significantly diverge. However, there is a gap in the literature addressing the ambiguity and inconsistent use of these terms in the context of South Korea. The linguistic discrepancy in how these terms are conceptualised and operationalised has important implications for the study of athletes’ long-term health and well-being, where a nuanced perspective on identity is necessary for understanding physical activity behaviour and health outcomes through the transition out of competitive sport. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to refine the terminology used in the previously translated versions of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale and Exercise Identity Scale and examine whether refined questionnaires appropriately represent similar but distinct concepts. Using software program R, this aim was addressed through a two-factor confirmatory factor analysis of the measurement scales within a sample of South Korean male student-athletes (N = 232, Mage = 19.93 ± 1.22 years). Global fit indices of the final model demonstrated acceptable fit χ2 (101) = 208.512, p < .01, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .07 (90% Confidence Interval: .06 – .08), SRMR = .06 and the local fit indices further supported convergent and discriminant validity of the scales within the sample. Recognition of cultural differences and nuances related to the terms “athlete” vs. “exerciser” and “sport” vs. “exercise” is important for fostering a comprehensive understanding of these identities within sport and exercise psychology research.

Telling tales in sport, exercise, and performance psychology: The how, what, and why of creative analytical practices.

Telling tales in sport, exercise, and performance psychology: The how, what, and why of creative analytical practices.

The Delphi technique in sport, exercise, and performance psychology: Extensive scoping review, insights, and recommendations for scholars.

The Delphi technique in sport, exercise, and performance psychology: Extensive scoping review, insights, and recommendations for scholars.

Supplemental Material for The Delphi Technique in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology: Extensive Scoping Review, Insights, and Recommendations for Scholars

Supplemental Material for The Delphi Technique in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology: Extensive Scoping Review, Insights, and Recommendations for Scholars

Supplemental Material for Telling Tales in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology: The How, What, and Why of Creative Analytical Practices

Supplemental Material for Telling Tales in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology: The How, What, and Why of Creative Analytical Practices

The relationship between mindfulness and optimism-pessimism levels in athletes

This study investigates the interplay between psychological traits—Optimism, Pessimism, and Mindfulness—and their collective impact on athletes' performance and well-being. Employing a correlational survey design, this study engages a carefully selected convenience sample comprising 236 athletes from various sporting disciplines, encompassing various educational backgrounds. The sample included 33.1% women and 66.9% men, with a significant portion holding bachelor's degrees. The Athlete Optimism And Pessimism Scale (AOPS) and the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport (MIS) were administered to assess the psychological constructs. Analytical methods included t-tests, ANOVA, and Pearson's correlations. Results indicate no gender differences in overall Optimism, Pessimism, and Mindfulness. However, males displayed higher Refocusing abilities. No significant impact of sport type or education level was observed on these psychological traits. Age showed no correlation with the variables. A positive association between Optimism and the Mindfulness subcomponents of Awareness and Refocusing emerged, highlighting Optimism's beneficial role. In contrast, Pessimism showed negative correlations, suggesting its detrimental effect. The findings underscore the need for tailored psychological interventions that enhance Optimism and Mindfulness while reducing Pessimism. This study contributes to sports psychology by suggesting that individualized interventions are crucial for fostering an athlete's psychological resilience and performance, with the potential for growth and adaptation extending across the lifespan. Keywords: Athletic Performance, Psychological Resilience, Mindfulness, Optimism, Pessimism

Sport and Exercise Psychology and Women’s Sport/Physical Activity Across Generations: Perspectives From Pre-Title IX Boomer Through Millennial to Post-Title IX Gen Z

Our author team represents three distinct generations, including an early Baby Boomer senior scholar, a Millennial mid-career scholar-professional, and a recent Gen Z graduate student. All three of us have been involved in sport and exercise psychology (SEP) from a feminist and social justice perspective during our academic careers and have traversed the intersections of these disciplines in our SEP practice and scholarship. In our conversations, we discuss the evolution of women’s place in sport/physical activity and SEP over time and situate our experiences across varied generations and positionalities, including highlighting our connections to, and the unique role of, our home institution. In those conversations, we acknowledge the progress that has been made while recognizing the ways in which sport/physical activity and SEP remain contested spaces. We conclude with our reflections and thoughts on moving forward to address diversity, equity, inclusion, and social justice for participants, practitioners, and scholars.

Athlete identity in para-sport: A comparative study of athletes with congenital and acquired disabilities

BackgroundIdentity development explores how individuals perceive themselves based on their life experiences, including their current self and aspirations. Athlete Identity has been studied using a 4-factor framework across various sports and ability groups. However, there is limited research on how individuals with physical disabilities perceive themselves as athletes and how an acquired disability impacts identity compared to a congenital disability. ObjectiveTo test the validity of the 4-Factor Model of Athlete Identity and to determine if athletic identity differs between para-athletes who have congenital versus acquired disabilities. MethodsSecondary analysis of cross-sectional data from the National Wheelchair Basketball Association. Participants consisted of 408 individuals (8 years and older) who play wheelchair basketball (n = 315 male; 29.13 ± 13.89 yrs; M ± SD) who responded to a brief online questionnaire including basic demographics and the 10-item Athlete Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS). ResultsNo significant differences in total AIMS scores were found between participants with congenital disabilities and participants with acquired disabilities. Age was a significant covariate. Eigenvalue analysis of the AIMS scores shows that 2 factors describe this population of athletes. ConclusionsDisability acquisition is not associated with total AIMS scores. Athletic identity is weaker in older participants suggesting a more inclusive self-schema as one ages. The 4-factor model of Athletic Identity is not applicable in this population. Continued research into the intersection of athlete and disability identity is warranted. Abstract presentedNorth American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, 2019.

Cultural variation in self-assessment in athletes: towards the development of culturally-grounded approach in sports psychology

ABSTRACT Sports psychologists have assumed that, to achieve success in sports, all athletes must motivate themselves by viewing themselves positively (self-enhancement) and objectively analyzing their weaknesses to improve their performance (self-improvement). However, cross-cultural psychologists revealed that the type of motivation varies based on culture. North Americans tend to view themselves positively, whereas East Asians are likely to see themselves objectively. If these cultural variations are applicable to athletes, exploring how culture influences motivation in athletes will help create culturally fit interventions in sports. As such, the current studies examined cultural variations in motivation by selectively focusing on motivation in athletes participating in team and open-skills sports. Overall, the results revealed cultural variations in athletes’ motivation regarding their attention to positive and negative information about the self; as such, culturally fine-tuned theories for athletes are suggested.

Motivational determinants of athletes’ self-realisation depending on their professional qualification

BackgroundIn the contemporary era, there is a growing emphasis on understanding the self-realization of personality, encompassing individual-psychological traits, abilities, knowledge, skills, and motivation, extensively studied in psychology. Notably, limited attention has been given to exploring motivational determinants influencing athlete self-realization based on their professional qualifications. This gap is particularly pertinent in Kazakhstan, where significant efforts are directed towards athlete preparation.MethodsEmploying a systemic approach by Bagadirova and Kudinov, the study views athlete self-realization as a multi-level phenomenon with interconnected components. A total of 180 athletes participated, including 60 professionals (average age 23.9), 60 amateurs (average age 31.1), and 60 Paralympians (average age 24.4). The methodological toolkit comprises four diagnostic techniques: E.A. Kalinin’s “Motives of Sports Activities” (MSA) questionnaire, S. Maddi’s resilience test adapted by D.A. Leontiev and E.I. Rasskazova, and S.I. Kudinov’s multidimensional questionnaire on self-realization.ResultsSignificant differences in motivational determinants and self-realization attitudes emerge across athlete groups based on their sports qualifications. Noteworthy aspects include declining in motivation among professional athletes of masters of sports and masters of sports of international class, and rigidity in life resilience among Paralympic athletes. Overall, self-realization levels are not high, with extremely low levels of professional self-realization in all three athlete categories.ConclusionsThe study’s scientific novelty lies in systematically organizing knowledge on fundamental motivational determinants impacting athlete self-realization according to professional qualifications. This research addresses the acute shortage of psychological studies in sports psychology for Kazakhstan, which is still in its early stages. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions by coaches and sports psychologists to enhance motivation levels, especially among elite athletes, and foster resilience, particularly in Paralympic athletes, ultimately advancing the field in the country.

Supporting Client Transitions Out of UK Football Academies

Release from professional football (soccer) academies in the UK can result in experiences of psychological distress for the transitioning individual (i.e., the player) and their support network (e.g., family members). Despite the commonality of such transitions and their potential negative effects, it is surprising that practice insights on supporting the transition out of professional football academies are sparse. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to draw on case material to highlight approaches and challenges for sport psychologists supporting a range of clients during transitions out of an academy football club. In closing, we offer key recommendations for stakeholders and those delivering support in practice settings when seeking to support similar transitions.

Linking pre-performance stress appraisals with emotions in sport

Although research has investigated how appraisals are linked with categories of emotions (e.g. pleasant and unpleasant emotions) in sport, research into how stress appraisal components are associated with specific discrete emotions commonly experienced in sport has received scant attention. This study examined how pre-performance stress appraisals were related to pre-performance anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, and happiness. Athletes ( N = 458) completed measures of pre-performance stress appraisals and emotions in relation to their latest competitive performance. Path analyses revealed challenge appraisal was positively linked to pleasant emotions, and threat appraisal with unpleasant emotions. Specific emotions also possessed discrete links with appraisal components. For example, uncontrollable-by-anyone appraisal was positively linked with anger and dejection but inversely linked with anxiety. Moreover, controllable-by-others appraisal was positively associated, and controllable-by-self appraisal was negatively associated, with anxiety. Excitement and happiness were similarly related with appraisal components. However, controllable-by-self appraisal was positively and more strongly associated with excitement, whereas controllable-by-others appraisal was also positively and directly linked with happiness. These findings highlight how stress appraisals are linked with common emotions in sport and offer applied implications for coaches, sport psychologists and athletes regarding ways that could help regulate pre-performance emotions in sport.

Athletics is still a male-dominated sport: the underrepresentation of women as athletes, coaches, and referees in Brazil

Gender inequality remains a pervasive issue in sports, attracting increasing attention in contemporary research. Despite this, scant scholarly focus has been directed towards the participation of women in athletics. This study sought to investigate the involvement of women as athletes, coaches, and referees across various age categories and events within the Brazilian Athletics Championship 2019. We assessed publicly available data from the championship, specifically the number of women in these roles. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, Chi-Square test for association estimation, and one sample t-tests for mean frequency comparisons. The level of significance was set at p&lt;0.05. Our findings revealed no significant association between event type and age category, indicating a similar frequency of female athlete participation across different events and age groups. Notably, the average participation of women as athletes (42%) and coaches (19%) was statistically below the 50% threshold (t=4.595, p&lt;0.001; t=25.00, p&lt;0.001, respectively). Women represented 41% of the referees and did not show a significant difference to 50% (t=2.973, p=0.058). There was a significant association between gender and sport position with a higher participation of women as athletes and referees compared to coaches. In this study we show that, although there is a movement towards quantitative equality, women are still underrepresented as athletes, coaches, and referees in athletics, emphasizing the imperative for investment in sports policies, sports programs development geared towards fostering gender equality in athletics practices, and a qualitative comprehension of the challenges and barriers these professionals face. Keywords: Gender; social justice; sport psychology; sport management; leadership