Sports Leagues Research Articles

A Comprehensive Data Pipeline for Comparing the Effects of Momentum on Sports Leagues

Momentum has been a consistently studied aspect of sports science for decades. Among the established literature, there has, at times, been a discrepancy between conclusions. However, if momentum is indeed an actual phenomenon, it would affect all aspects of sports, from player evaluation to pre-game prediction and betting. Therefore, using momentum-based features that quantify a team’s linear trend of play, we develop a data pipeline that uses a small sample of recent games to assess teams’ quality of play and measure the predictive power of momentum-based features versus the predictive power of more traditional frequency-based features across several leagues using several machine learning techniques. More precisely, we use our pipeline to determine the differences in the predictive power of momentum-based features and standard statistical features for the National Hockey League (NHL), National Basketball Association (NBA), and five major first-division European football leagues. Our findings show little evidence that momentum has superior predictive power in the NBA. Still, we found some instances of the effects of momentum on the NHL that produced better pre-game predictors, whereas we view a similar trend in European football/soccer. Our results indicate that momentum-based features combined with frequency-based features could improve pre-game prediction models and that, in the future, momentum should be studied more from a feature/performance indicator point-of-view and less from the view of the dependence of sequential outcomes, thus attempting to distance momentum from the binary view of winning and losing.

Does competitive balance explain stadium attendance? Evidence from Finnish men’s football

ABSTRACT In this article, we examine the Finnish football league attendance characteristics. Sport leagues usually claim that outcome uncertainty is necessary to maintain interest among fans. In this paper, uncertainty of outcome hypothesis is tested applying football data from the highest tier in Finnish men’s football, currently known as Veikkausliiga. The time period covers 1947–2022. Empirical results show that Finnish football attendance is positively related to competitive balance between the rivalling teams. Increased alcohol consumption in the society is not related to football attendance, but we found that the number of games played during the season is positively related to ticket sales. Number of teams in the league seems to be negatively related to attendance. Further studies could investigate the time of the year, the condition of the stadium and the ticket pricing to see whether there is a correlation with on-site attendance.

Community and Organizational Readiness to Adopt a Physical Activity Intervention in Micropolitan Settings.

Assessing community and organizational readiness is key to successfully implementing programs. The purpose of this study was to assess the baseline readiness of micropolitan communities to adopt an evidence-based physical activity (PA) intervention by exploring three dimensions: (1) attitudes and current efforts toward prevention, (2) community and organizational climate that facilitates (or impedes) change, and (3) capacity to implement change. Data were collected from community leaders in 14 communities through an online survey in June 2021 (n = 149). Data were analyzed in aggregate using descriptive statistics for multiple-choice responses and content analysis for open ended responses. One-way repeated analyses of variance were used to compare mean score differences. In reference to their attitudes prior to the pandemic, respondents said that addressing PA was "somewhat a priority" in their professional positions (M = 2.01, SD = 0.94), their organizations (M = 2.08, SD = 0.91), and their communities (M = 2.28, SD = 0.88). Current PA efforts included statewide initiatives, community sponsored events/clubs, and youth sports leagues. The community climate included both PA facilitators (mainly outdoor PA resources) and barriers (cost, lack of social services, and an unsupportive PA environment). Individual-level capacity (M = 2.94; SD = 1.21) to adopt a PA program was regarded lower than the community's capacity (M = 3.95; SD = 0.82), and perceptions of capacity at the community level improved even more if technical assistance (M = 3.96; SD = 0.84) or financial support (M = 4.12; SD = 0.80) were provided. Readiness varied by dimension, suggesting the need for tailored implementation supports including technical assistance and financial support.

Unsupervised Learning in NBA Injury Recovery: Advanced Data Mining to Decode Recovery Durations and Economic Impacts

This study utilized advanced data mining and machine learning to examine player injuries in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 2000–01 to 2022–23. By analyzing a dataset of 2296 players, including sociodemographics, injury records, and financial data, this research investigated the relationships between injury types and player recovery durations, and their socioeconomic impacts. Our methodology involved data collection, engineering, and mining; the application of techniques such as Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN), isolation forest, and the Z score for anomaly detection; and the application of the Apriori algorithm for association rule mining. Anomaly detection revealed 189 anomalies (1.04% of cases), highlighting unusual recovery durations and factors influencing recovery beyond physical healing. Association rule mining indicated shorter recovery times for lower extremity injuries and a 95% confidence level for quick returns from “Rest” injuries, affirming the NBA’s treatment and rest policies. Additionally, economic factors were observed, with players in lower salary brackets experiencing shorter recoveries, pointing to a financial influence on recovery decisions. This study offers critical insights into sports injuries and recovery, providing valuable information for sports professionals and league administrators. This study will impact player health management and team tactics, laying the groundwork for future research on long-term injury effects and technology integration in player health monitoring.

Demand for offense: designated hitters and MLB attendance

ABSTRACT In 2022, Major League Baseball changed its rules to include the designated hitter position in both the American and National Leagues. Up until that year, designated hitters were only used by American League teams. This rule change creates an environment where half of a major sports league is given a shock to offensive production. We analyse the demand for offence by investigating how the designated hitter affects attendance and offensive production for National League teams. Our results contribute to a rich literature that analyzes how offence affects fan participation, as we provide the first evidence using causal inference that offence increases fan attendance. Using a difference-in-differences framework, we show that the offence created by a designated hitter increases attendance by about 3.5–7.9% at National League home games as a result of the rule change. Given a point estimate increase in total offence of about 4.85%, we find evidence that attendance is elastic with respect to total offence.

Tackling International Markets: Bicultural Brand Positioning of Sport Leagues in Foreign Countries

As sport league brands have increasingly extended their marketing activities into foreign countries, international brand positioning has become a relevant research topic. In this research, we introduce and examine the concept of bicultural brand positioning, an approach that combines a sport league’s connection to its home country with target-country associations. We integrate bicultural identity theory with the literature on brand benefits to propose two types of bicultural brand positioning: functional versus symbolic. Three experiments, using the National Football League and German satellite fans as the empirical context, provide evidence that bicultural brand positioning incorporating functional (vs. symbolic) benefits for the satellite fans increases bicultural brand image integration, defined as the perceived compatibility of combining the two country cultures, and has positive indirect effects on intentions to use the brand and positive word of mouth. These effects are driven by increased perceptions of cultural authenticity of the brand and brand convenience.

Regulation and Management of European Sports Leagues – The Case of Swiss Professional Football

Regulation and Management of European Sports Leagues – The Case of Swiss Professional Football

Symbolic Interactionism and the Metamorphosis of Sports Brands: Indian Premier League’s Journey From Niche to Mass Cool

This study delves into the evolution of the Indian Premier League, the world’s second-largest sports league, charting its transition from a niche to a mass cool brand. Through the lens of symbolic interactionism, it scrutinizes 13 years of the Indian Premier League’s promotional videos with 18 in-depth interviews of cultural intermediaries. The research spotlights the nuanced process of brand coolness within the Indian Premier League, demonstrating how the league’s brand identity undergoes a deliberate reconstruction, blending both traditional and modern sociocultural elements. A pivotal “boost cool” phase is identified, signaling a strategic shift to expand the brand’s appeal to a wider audience. This research contributes significantly to brand coolness literature by conceptualizing a brand coolness life cycle, charting a path from uncool, through niche and boost cool, to mass cool, and eventually to uncool or reinvention, highlighting “boost cool” as a critical transitional stage.

Marketing and Business Operations Analysis of Modern Mainstream Sports Events: A Comparative Study of NBA and CBA

This study delves into the marketing strategies and business operations of contemporary mainstream sports events, focusing on a comparative analysis between the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA). In today's globalized world, sports have evolved beyond mere competition into lucrative entertainment businesses. The NBA and CBA stand as two prominent examples of sports leagues that have garnered massive fan followings and commercial success, albeit in distinct ways. The research investigates the multifaceted aspects of marketing employed by these leagues. It explores how the NBA's international expansion strategies and well-orchestrated marketing campaigns have enabled it to establish a strong global presence. Meanwhile, the CBA's unique approaches to catering to its domestic audience and its collaboration with local brands are scrutinized for their impact on the league's marketability. Furthermore, the study dissects the business operations behind these sports leagues. It analyzes revenue generation models, including ticket sales, broadcasting rights, merchandise, and sponsorship deals, to discern their efficiency and sustainability. By comparing the revenue structures and financial performances of the NBA and CBA, this research aims to provide valuable insights into optimizing the business side of modern sports events. Through this comparative analysis, we hope to shed light on the key factors contributing to the success of sports leagues in the contemporary era. The findings are expected to be of interest to sports industry stakeholders, marketers, and businesses seeking to understand the dynamics of sports marketing and business operations in a global context.

The pursuit of optimal dual career balance by athletes in women’s professional ice hockey

A recent period of growth in women’s professional and semiprofessional sport leagues has provided many athletes with newfound career opportunities. Concomitantly, an increasing number of female athletes are maintaining occupations in and out of sport. Little, however, is known about such maintenance: an ever-growing body of literature on dual careers (i.e., the combination of sport and studies or work) is replete with works on sport and education, but lacking in studies on athletes who are employed in multiple occupations. Consequently, and given related calls for further inquiry, the researchers conducted a study on the pursuit of optimal dual career balance by athletes who have typically held more than one occupation, those in women’s professional ice hockey. Interviews with nine such athletes (n = 9), as well as two team managers (n = 2), from the Premier Hockey Federation, revealed that the pursuit of optimal dual career balance involved multiple demands (e.g., work-work conflict, work to family interference); elicited the employment of organizational (e.g., schedule accommodations, athletic reprieves, flexible work arrangements), social (e.g., moral and financial support), and personal resources (e.g., planning/scheduling, open communication, temporary task prioritization, compartmentalization, positive reinterpretation); and engendered both costs (e.g., limited training and athletic development, dropout/retirement) and benefits (e.g., vocational advancement, broadened identities, preparedness for athletic career cessation) alike. Ultimately, the responses of the interviewees pointed to the potential for managers and psychologists to further support working athletes in the pursuit of optimal dual career balance. Lay summary: Athletes in women’s professional ice hockey typically must maintain more than one career/occupation. In doing so, they are likely to experience multiple challenges (e.g., work conflicts). These challenges may result in dropout, or, through various supports, be minimized. When minimized, or overcome, athletes may succeed in sport, work, and beyond.

Social equity and subsidies for Major League sports

Owners of major league franchises in the United States receive hundreds of millions of dollars in taxpayer support for their facilities. Proponents of these subsidies appeal to utilitarianism to justify their policy position, but social equity is a casualty of utilitarianism. In this article, we review the utilitarianism–social equity conflict within the context of major league subsidies. We review four areas where social inequities appear in subsidy debates: eminent domain, budgetary trade-offs, negative externalities, and community benefits agreements. Our hope is to bring increased awareness to the social equity aspects of subsidies to motivate empirical research.

Patent races and pennant races: A new rationale for revenue sharing in sports leagues

This paper draws an analogy between patent races and pennant races. Both involve externalities: investments by individual firms (teams) produce spillover benefits, but they also precipitate a race to be first. In both contexts, the granting of partial rights to the winner balances these effects. In the case of inventions this takes the form of time-limited patents; in sports competition it takes the form of revenue sharing. This conclusion provides a justification for revenue sharing that differs from the usual claim that it promotes competitive balance.

Examining the Digital Pitch: A 3-Year Examination of Social Media Metrics From Men’s Professional Sport

Although research in the social media and sport domain continues to uncover key insights related to content, there has been a push toward identifying the social media metrics that serve as the antecedents to relationship marketing engagement. Along that vein, the purpose of this study was to analyze social media activity (i.e., impressions and engagements) from all teams in a given professional sport league over a 3-year period. Contextually set with Major League Soccer teams for the 2017, 2018, and 2019 calendar years, 66,745 Instagram posts were retrieved using MVPindex and parsed for focal social media metrics (i.e., impressions and engagements) for each team using a temporal lens (i.e., by month and by day). Findings of this study align with past work indicating the need for sport properties to focus on posting outside of game-day windows, harnessing the ongoing, instantaneous nature of social media.

Demand for Chinese Super League Broadcast: An Analysis of Broadcasters’ Match Selection and TV Ratings

ABSTRACT Research question The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors affecting broadcasters’ choice of matches and audience viewership of live Chinese Super League (CSL) matches. Research methods Data came from 720 matches spanning 2017–2019, with 122 selected for CCTV5 telecasts. Broadcasters’ match selections and TV ratings were regressed on antecedent factors of the demand for televised CSL matches. Results and findings The broadcaster selection model showed broadcasters’ preferences for higher outcome uncertainty, higher athlete salaries, higher league standings, and teams contending for the CSL Championship. The viewership model indicated higher TV ratings for matches with larger fan bases, higher athlete salaries, higher-ranked teams, and those held on weekends or at night. Implications This study expands football media demand research and is one of the few to explore match selection and viewership factors in CSL. It offers practical insights for sport broadcasters and league managers in Asian and global contexts.

A Study on Understanding the Perception of Marketing Differences Between Men’s and Women’s Professional Sports Leagues

Professional sports have long been dominated by male athletes and leagues, with women's sports receiving significantly less media coverage, sponsorship, and investment. While women's profes sional sports have made strides in recent years, including increased television coverage and sponsorship deals, many believe that there is still a significant gap between men's and women's sports leagues. One potential area of difference between the two is in their marketing. This study aims to investigate the perception of marketing differences between men's and women's profes sional sports leagues and highlights the importance of promoting gender equality and providing visibility for women's sports. This study utilized a survey method to investigate the perception of marketing differences be tween men's and women's professional sports leagues. A total of 437 respondents participated in the survey, with the majority being sports fans. The study utilized Jamovi software for data analysis and found that participants perceived differences in marketing between the two leagues. The results of the survey showed that participants perceived differences in marketing between men's and women's professional sports leagues. Specifically, women's sports were often market ed towards a family-friendly and community-oriented audience, while men's sports were market ed towards a broader and more diverse audience. Additionally, participants noted that women's sports were not marketed at the same capacity as men’s pro sports. Interestingly, despite the per ceived differences in marketing, the majority of participants did not express negative opinions about the marketing of women's sports. Instead, many participants recognized the importance of promoting gender equality and providing visibility for women's sports. The survey also revealed that while the majority of participants were viewers of men's sports due to easy access, many were also fans of women's sports. This suggests that there is a significant and growing fanbase for women's sports, which could be harnessed to increase their visibility and popularity. The findings from this study may inform future efforts to increase the visibility and popularity of women's professional sports, ultimately contributing to a more equitable and inclusive sports landscape.

Preparing Basketball Players for Competition During COVID-19 Lockdown: An International Strength and Conditioning Perspective

ABSTRACT The global outbreak of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) resulted in governing bodies suspending professional sports leagues, including the National Basketball Association (NBA) and notably the International Olympic Committee (2020 Tokyo Olympic Games). As competitions resumed, performance staff shifted their focus to preparing athletes for a safe return to competition. This article provides novel and unique international perspectives on preparing basketball players for competition during COVID-19 lockdown outlining lessons learned from the NBA, FIBA Asia Cup, and Olympic Games. Reflections are provided unpacking central themes related to (a) the impact of COVID-19 on physiological and psychological domains; (b) strength and conditioning methods and nutritional strategies used in the (re)training process; and (c) situation-specific interventions and educational strategies related to psychological well-being. Collectively, performance staff responsible for the preparation of basketball players during COVID-19 must consider additional health and performance support to ensure physical and psychological readiness to complete without negatively impacting physical development.

The role of technology in United States' modern sports journalism

The article examines the role of technology in modern sports journalism in the USA. It describes how sports media are being modified under the influence of new technologies. And also the application of technologies in each of the four major sports leagues of the USA is considered separately. The object of study in the article is sports journalism in the USA. The subject of the study is the role of technology in modern journalism, which is further considered on the example of sports journalism in the USA. The purpose of the work is to study the impact of technology on modern sports journalism. The general scientific descriptive-analytical method and comparative method were used as the main research method. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time the role of technology in modern sports journalism in the USA is being investigated. New Internet platforms that help sports journalists collect analytical data are considered. It also describes the use of virtual and augmented reality in the major sports leagues of the United States of America. Technology plays a huge role in modern sports journalism in the USA. They not only allow you to expand the reach of the audience and create more accurate materials, but also provide new methods of interacting with readers. Journalists actively use innovations to be closer to their audience and give them new impressions.

Mapping provision and evaluation practices in local community health and wellbeing programmes delivered by professional sports clubs in the United Kingdom: A practice-based targeted review

Abstract Professional sports clubs (PSCs) are potentially effective settings for health promotion, however, their role within policy is unclear. Potential reasons include lack of awareness about existing provision of health and wellbeing (H&W) programmes delivered, and adequacy of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) practices. This review aimed to: (i) map the provision of H&W programmes delivered by PSCs in the United Kingdom (UK); and (ii) explore current M&E practices of PSCs and consider the policy implications of this. To conduct this practice-based targeted review, websites from eight professional sport leagues were hand-searched for programmes and impact reports, amounting to the inclusion 116 PSCs. Suitable programmes were quantified, whilst impact reports were analysed via inductive documentary content analysis. Results identified 127 H&W programmes that met our inclusive criteria. A total of 36 impact reports were retrieved, presenting engagement figures and anecdotal case studies as the most common evaluation methods. Additionally, 43 H&W impact statements were identified within the impact reports, but only 14 were aligned to specific H&W outcomes. None were supported by measurement-tool-driven data, and reporting of data collection timeframes and participant numbers were also rare. Findings illuminate the provision of H&W programmes delivered by UK-based PSCs and their health promotion priorities. However, the H&W aims of programmes are typically vague, measurement tools are rarely used, and evaluations are usually anecdotal which may limit the potential uptake of these programmes and PSCs generally in relevant public health policy. Further research is thus needed on the challenges faced when seeking to monitor and evaluate programmes effectively and to build a stronger evidence base for the use of PSCs as vehicles of health promotion.

Mapping the provision and evaluation practices of local community health and wellbeing programmes delivered by professional sports clubs in England: a practice-based targeted review

ABSTRACT Professional sports clubs (PSCs) are potentially effective settings for health promotion; however, their role within policy is unclear. Potential reasons include lack of awareness about existing provision of health and wellbeing (H&W) programmes and adequacy of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) practices. This review aimed to: (i) map the provision of H&W programmes delivered by PSCs in the United Kingdom (UK), and (ii) explore current M&E practices of PSCs and consider the policy implications of this. Websites from eight professional sport leagues were hand-searched for programmes and impact reports. Suitable programmes were quantified, whilst impact reports were analysed via inductive documentary content analysis. Results identified 176 H&W programmes and 36 impact reports, as well as 43 H&W impact statements, but only 14 of these were aligned to specific H&W outcomes. The H&W aims of programmes were typically vague, measurement tools were rarely used, and evaluations were usually anecdotal case studies and based on engagement figures, which may not only limit the potential uptake of these programmes but also the relevance of PSCs to public policy. Further research is thus needed to build a stronger evidence base for the use of PSCs as vehicles of public health promotion and policy, and to better address the challenges faced when seeking to monitor and evaluate PSC programmes effectively.

Consumer perceptions of a secondary ticket market: the case of StubHub and major league baseball

PurposeThis study aims to examine how the partnership between StubHub and MLB affected consumers' perceptions of StubHub. The case of StubHub and MLB was selected based on their partnership history and the reputation of StubHub.Design/methodology/approachA Qualtrics survey panel was used to collect the survey data. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the relationships between sponsor congruence, brand equity and purchase intention.FindingsSponsor congruence plays a significant role in consumers' perceived quality of StubHub. Additionally, brand equity significantly influenced purchase intention. More specifically, brand loyalty was the strongest indicator of intent to purchase tickets from StubHub. Brand loyalty and perceived quality indirectly affected the relationship between sponsor congruence and consumers' purchase intentions of StubHub.Originality/valueSponsor congruence between secondary ticket markets and sport leagues can provide a competitive advantage, helping create revenue generation and leverage for partnerships. Perceived quality can help facilitate this relationship and increase revenue generation.