Spondias Pinnata Research Articles

Underutilised fruits of Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve: a potential source of natural antioxidants

Antioxidant properties of commercial fruits are well investigated however there is little information available about such properties of underutilised fruits. The present study evaluated the antioxidant potential of ten underutilised edible fruits viz., Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr., Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Mull.Arg., Elaeocarpus serratus L., Flacourtia montana J. Graham, Phoenix loureiroi Kunth, Psidium guineense Sw., Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz, Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Syzygium gardneri Thwaites and Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC. from the Kerala part of Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve. Total phenolic content was determined through Folin–Ciocalteau method, flavonoids by aluminium chloride colorimetric method, ascorbic acid by titrimetric method and antioxidant activity was measured by DPPH radical scavenging assay. Free radical scavenging potentials of the evaluated underutilised fruits were found to be proportional to their respective phenolic, flavonoid and ascorbic acid contents. Amongst all the fruits analysed, Elaeocarpus serratus L., Psidium guineense Sw., Syzygium gardneri Thwaites and Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Mull.Arg. exhibited significantly high antioxidant activity and can be explored as viable source of natural antioxidants for functional food and pharmaceutical applications.

Ethanol Extract of Spondias pinnata Leaves Reduce Parasite Number and Increase Macrophage Phagocytosis Capacity of Mice Infected by Plasmodium berghei

BACKGROUND: Currently, there is no vaccine against malaria in humans, the development of resistance to anti-malarial drugs, causing the need to find new alternatives to overcome malaria infections. This study aimed to determine effect of Spondias pinnata in increasing cellular immunity, especially phagocytosis activity of peritoneal macrophages against Plasmodium berghei infection.METHODS: This was an experimental study with two stages of research, each stage requires 36 Balb/c mice, aged 2 months and weight 20-25 grams. After one week of acclimatization, the mice were put into 6 different groups, each group consisted of 6 mice. The negative control was a group of mice given distilled water for 14 days then infected by P. berghei in the 15th day. Meanwhile, T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 groups were given S. pinnata leaves ethanol extract with dose of 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively, and then infected by P. berghei in the 15th day.RESULTS: The results showed that the lowest parasitemia and the highest capacity of macrophage to phagocytose latex was found in treatment group T3 that received 50 mg/kg BW of S. pinnata leaves ethanol extract. Based on analysis of the Pearson correlation test, there was a significant correlation between percent phagocytosis and parasitemia (p<0.05).CONCLUSION: Ethanol extract of S. pinnata leaves lower the parasite number of P. berghei in Balb/c mice and increase the capacity of macrophage to phagocytose latex. However, the mechanisms of how S. pinnata leaves extract in activating phagocytosis capacity and reducing parasitemia still need further investigation.KEYWORDS: phagocytosis, Plasmodium berghei, parasite number, Spondias pinnata

A Tangy Twist Review on Hog-Plum: <i>Spondias pinnata</i> (L.f.) Kurz

<em>Spondias pinnata</em> (L.f.) Kurz., belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, generally referred to as Indian Hog plum, a deciduous, glabrous tree with a healthy fruit to eat. Hog plum is a mild deciduous tree plant of high nutritional value, stubby calories and abundant in vegetable proteins, zinc, chitin, starch, vitamins and minerals. Traditional use of various parts of <em>S. pinnata</em> includes diarrhea, dysentery, stomach troubles, hyperacidity, wounds, sprain, rheumatism, gonorrhoea, tuberculosis, aphrodisiac, arrow poison antidote, dyspepsia, dysentery, ring worms, abscess painful joints, refrigerant, tonic, antiseptic, astringent, mental disorders, tuberculosis, vomiting and many more. A number of pharmacological activities were reported from several extracts of <em>S. pinnata</em> and its parts that include hypoglycemic, anti-cancer, ulcer-protective, antidiarrhoeal, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, thrombolytic, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, analgesic, antipyretic, antihypertensive, anthelmintic, diuretic and laxative, anti-tuberculosis, cytotoxic, antioxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic, ischemia reperfusion injury and preconditioning of heart, anxiolytic, reduce side effects of chemotherapy, ameliorating, platelet aggregation inhibitory activity and acute and sub-chronic toxicity. A few phytochemicals were detailed on this plant. The chemical components of <em>S. pinnata</em> include different amino acids, carbohydrates, terpenoids, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and so on. Various solvent extract and their gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis have confirmed the structures of a number of important phytoconstituents. Hence this review can be a good reference for researchers who would undertake further investigation about <em>S. pinnata</em>.

The Structure, Composition, and Health of Remnant Forest Vegetation of West Timor, Indonesia

Aims: The forest of West Timor has been cleared for different purposes for decades, leaving only small patches of remnant forest vegetation. Understanding tree-shrub composition and structure of this remnant forest vegetation is a vital instrument in assessing the sustainability of forest, species conservation, and management of forest ecosystems. This research was therefore conducted to investigate the current structure and composition pattern of tree-shrub species in such remnant forest vegetation.
 Study Design: This research project was designed using a vegetation survey employing the Point Centered Quarter Method.
 Place and Duration of Study: The research project was conducted in five sample stands of remnant forest vegetation, namely Oliana, Tablolong, Fatukoa, Oenesu, and Alak, the District of Kupang, West Timor, Indonesia, between April to July 2020.
 Methodology: In each sample stand, the tree-shrub vegetation was surveyed using Point Centered Quarter Method by placing three 100-m-long transects. The first transect was placed at random and the second and third transects were placed parallel to the first, with a distance of 100 m between two transects. Sample points were then determined in an interval of 10 m along each transect to construct four quarters. In each quarter, the nearest tree or shrub (≥ 1 m height) to the sample point was identified and the distance measured. For each tree or shrub species, number of individual, dominance, frequency, Importance Value Index (IVI), stem diameter at 0.5 m height, and average value of plant height for each species were determined. Index Similarity (IS) between stands were also calculated using Sørensen Coefficient.
 Results: Of the 600 invidual tree and shrub measured in a total of about 1,500-m-long line transect, about 28 tree-shrub species of 16 families were identified. The number of plant/hectare was 833 and the mean number of species/stand was 9.60 (sd = 1.94). Generally, the number of species and families found in the remnant vegetation community was relatively low compared to that of commonly found in rain forests. The IS between stand was 28.21 (sd = 14.40)%. The highest IS were between stand 1-2 (IS 55.56%) and between stand 1-4 (IS 47.62%). The lowest IS were between stand 3-4 and 3-5 (IS 10.53%). Based on the number of species, the five stands of remnant vegetation was dominated by families of Fabaceae, Arecaceae, and Anacardiaceae, but based on the IVI, they were dominated by families of Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Sapindaceae. On the basis of plant height, about 6.15% of the total individual was within the category of small plant (≤2 m) and 3.32% was of big tree (>14 m). However, on the basis of stem diameter, about 27.86% of the total individual was on the category of small plant (≤10 cm) and about 2.99% was of big tree (>130 cm). Most existing species were within the category of small and very small IVI, only about 14.26% of the existing species were within the category of very high IVI (>20%) and 71.43 were within the category of low and very low IVI (<10%). Four most prominent species, namely Tectona grandis Linn., Schleichera oleosa (Lour.), Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb., and Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz contributed to more than 50% IVI in the five stands of remnant vegetation. Among all species found, Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw., Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poiret, Syzygium cumini (L.), Pterocarpus indicus Willd., Pinus mercusii Jungh. & de Vriese, and Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn. ex Benth. were present in very small IVI. In general, the contribution of invasive species in the stands of remnant vegetation was relatively high (total IVI 56.96%), about a quarter of which were invasive weedy shrub species.
 Conclusion: Based on this result it can be concluded that the five stands of remnant forest were in the state of poor health as indicated by the low number of species and families, the low species diversity, the heterogeneous floristic composition as most of species present were in the category of low occurrence, and the dominance of invasive non-native tree and shrub species. Therefore, the forest needs immediate intervention by taking conservation and restoration action to prevent further destruction.

Variation in antioxidant activity at two ripening stages of wild mango, Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz., an underutilized fruit

Antioxidant compounds play a significant role in preventing and scavenging free-radicals by reducing oxidative stress and providing protection to humans against degenerative diseases and infections. Obviously, antioxidant molecules of plant origin are pivotal to combat the oxidative harm in cells. Present work intended to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of the fruits of Spondias pinnata. Methanol extracts of the fruits at two stages of maturity were prepared and investigated by various antioxidants analyses such as total antioxidant activity, reducing power and radical scavenging assays (DPPH, nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide). Its total phenol, flavonoid and tannin contents were also determined. Spondias pinnata fruit extracts exhibited effective antioxidant activity and its IC50 values of the unripe fruits were 65, 66, 72.23, 83.25, 66.75 ?g/ml and ripe fruits were 124.24, 92.50, 97.66, 144.10, 72.25 ?g/ml, for total antioxidant activity, reducing power, DPPH radical scavenging, nitric oxide radical scavenging and hydrogen peroxide scavenging assays respectively. The extracts, especially unripe fruit extract had good amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid contents which might contribute the antioxidant activities considerably. It is evident from the study that the fruits of S. pinnata possessed potent antioxidant activity and it can be considered as a good dietary choice among the underutilized fruits as well as common fruits. Therefore, wild mango may be a good choice of antioxidants of plant origin for dietary and pharmaceutical uses.

Manfaat Loloh Don Cemcem Dalam Sistem Kesehatan Tradisional

<div><p><em>Complex problems in people's lives in the global era often cause psychological pressure which subsequently causes various disturbances in the system of human body which eventually lead to various illness. In order to return to their health level, people are in their quest for diverse alternative health medications which have minimal side effects, one of which is back to nature by consuming traditional medicine. Traditional medicine has been familiar with the life of the Indonesian people, including the Balinese in particular. In Bali, there is a traditional health system which still exists in the community known as Usadha. In Usadha, there are various types of treatment, one of which is often used by the Balinese, namely medicinal herbs or the Balinese people often call it loloh. The Republic of Indonesia Minister of Health Regulation No. 61 of 2016 concerning Empirical Traditional Health Services and the existence of the Governor of Bali Regulation No. 55 of 2019 concerning Balinese Traditional Health Services have caused loloh to revive. Loloh is now not only consumed by the local people, but has also been consumed by foreign tourists who visit Bali. One of the prima donna is loloh don cemcem which is sourced from kecemcem leaves (Spondias pinnata (Lf) Kurz). The process of making loloh don cemcem follows the traditional serving pattern with the intention that by consuming it, people will get various benefits, especially in the aspect of physical health. </em></p></div>

The Critically Endangered White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Sigur Plateau, Western Ghats, India: Population, breeding ecology, and threats

The present study aimed to assess the population status, breeding ecology, and conservation threats of Critically Endangered White-rumped Vulture in Sigur Plateau, Tamil Nadu, India from June 2011 to May 2012. The population of White-rumped vulture was estimated in the roosting and nesting sites twice in a month. Nesting colonies were systematically visited four times in a month during the breeding season to study nesting and breeding ecology. Carcasses and vulture counting was done by opportunistic count method. Two sets of questionnaires namely ‘precise and closed’ and ‘broad and open-ended’ were developed to asses the people’s perception on vulture conservation. The overall population of White-rumped Vultures was estimated about 70 to 115 individuals. In total, 68 nests were observed in two nesting colonies. Most of the nests (97%) were recorded on Terminalia arjuna and only 3% on Spondias mangifera. Among the 68 constructed nests, 34 were incubated and 30 chicks were fledged out from the nests with 88% breeding success. Feeding behavior was observed from 28 carcasses, Vultures were attended only 15 caracasses an average of 56.04±3.29 individuals of vultures were recorded. Interestingly, Elephant (61.8±5.1) and Indian Gaur (58.5±0.3) carcasses were attracted in greater numbers of vultures in susiquent days (3.5±0.2) than other carcasses. People’s attitude to vulture conservation was positive and useful in 90.82% of the cases (n=99). Cattle carcass disposal method favored to vultures in these regions. The Sigur Plateau to be declared as “Vulture Sanctuary” in order to legally protect and conserve the country’s southern-most wild and viable Critically Endangered White-rumped Vulture population in the landscape.

Short Communication: The fruit plant species diversity in the home gardens and their contribution to the livelihood of communities in rural area

Abstract. Elfrida, Mubarak A, Suwardi AB. 2020. Short Communication: The fruit plant species diversity in the home gardens and their contribution to the livelihood of rural communities in Tenggulun Sub-district, Aceh Tamiang, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 3670-3675. Home gardens have a significant potential to improve food security and offer a contribution to household income for communities in rural areas. The aim of this study was to assess the diversity of fruit plant species in the home gardens and their contribution to the livelihood of rural communities in Tenggulun Sub-district, Indonesia. The study was conducted in three villages of Tenggulun Sub-district, Aceh Tamiang District, namely Tenggulun, Selamat, and Simpang Kiri. Extensive field surveys, plant collections, and interviews with local communities were conducted, involving 350 households, using random sampling methods. A total of 39 fruit plant species consisting of 23 genera and 17 families were recorded at the three villages. Sixteen species, i.e., A. muricata, A. jiringa, Artocarpus integer, Averrhoa bilimbi, Baccaurea motleyana, Carica papaya, Citrus aurantifolia, Citrus hystrix, Garcinia mangostana, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Musa x paradisiaca, Nephelium lappaceum, Psidium guajava, Spondias pinnata, and Syzygium aqueum were the most frequently recorded in all of the villages. In addition to being used as food, the fruit plants in the study area were also used as medicines, fodder, fuelwood, and household items. The fruit plant species have a significant role in supporting household livelihoods to improve food security and potentially offer a household income for the rural community in the study area.

Potential of Local Plants from Buton Island as a Source of Learning Biology

The aims of this study is to identify the diversity of local plants on the island of Buton, the results of the identification of potential learning resources, the potential of local plants on the island of Buton to be used as a source of learning to achieve basic skill in the 2013 curicullum. This researches is a method of exploratory research that contains survey, observation and interview for the use of local plants. The data analysis used is the exploratif analysis and analysis of potential learning resources through a literature review. The results of this study indicate that 23 species of local plants have been identified on Buton Island to be used as a functional food, coloring agents, plastic subtitutes, herbs and spices, medicines and cosmetics, and raw materials for crafts/textiles. The local plants are Amorpophalus sp., Dioscorea alata, Setaria italica, Maranta arundinaceae, Cajanus sp., Oryza sativa, Indigofera sp., Tectona grandis, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Ficus septica, Pisonia alba, Musa balbisinia, Sterculia sp., Amomum sp., Spondias pinnata, Sandoricum koetjape, Averhoa balumbi, Eleutherine palmifolia, Donax canniformis, Pandanus sp., Lygodium circinatum, Bambusa blumeana, and lapi. Based on the requirements of fulfilling local potential as a source of learning that includes aspects of potential clarity, conformity to goals, clarity of objectives, clarity of information revealed, clarity of exploration guidelines and clarity of expected outcomes. the results of research in the form of local plant potential on Buton Island to achieve K.D-3.2 2013 curriculum on Indonesian Biodiversity Materials can be used as a source of biology learning for SMA class X.

Free Radical Scavenging Activity and Chemical Constituents of the Unripe Fruits of Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz. from Nepal

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.(Anacardiaceae) is widely used as food and for medicinal properties. This study aims to disclose the free radical scavenging potential, total phenolic and flavonoid contents and phytochemical constituents of 70% methanol extract of unripe fruits of S. pinnata collected from Kaski district, Nepal. The free radical scavenging activity was evaluated by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay method. The total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were estimated by using Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent and aluminium chloride methods, respectively. S. pinnata fruits extract showed potent free radical scavenging activity with IC50 value 2.75±0.23 μg/ml. TPC and TFC values were found to be 229.24±0.46 mg GAE/g and 192.58±3.81 mg QE/g, respectively. Detailed chemical isolation of the extract afforded caffeic acid methyl ester (1) and rhamnetin 3-O-sophoroside (2). In conclusion, S. pinnata fruits were found to be rich source of phenolic and flavonoid compounds and possessed strong free radical scavenging property. However, further study is needed to explore its potential health benefits and bioassay guided chemical analysis should be performed to isolate and identify the bioactive compounds.

Determination of Nutritional Content of Spondias Species from the Eastern Himalaya

The present study was carried out with the aim to screen out the nutritional characteristics of three underutilized fruit species of the genus Spondias which are seen grown wild in the forest of the north-eastern region of India, as the detail information on nutrient composition of these fruit species is scarce and people are unaware of the nutritional factor though inadvertently consuming a good amount of nutrients from these fruits. The present nutritional assessment revealed that the fruit of Spondias pinnata was found to possess highest TSS content (15.27 °Brix) however it was observed to exhibit higher acidity (4.59%) as well. The minimum titratable acidity was found in Spondias axillaris (2.45%). Spondias pinnata exhibited the highest ascorbic acid content (74.16 mg/100 g) followed by Spondias axillaris (61.60 mg/100 g) while the lowest (31.55 mg/100 g) was found in Spondias cytherea. Further, from the experiment, it was found that Spondias pinnata having the highest ascorbic acid was also found to exhibit highest DPPH free radical scavenging activity (68.49%). Spondias pinnata was also found to possess maximum reducing sugar (7.32%), total carbohydrate (12.51%), total chlorophyll (0.03 mg/g), total carotenoid (1.30 mg/100 g) and starch content (195.72 mg/100 g). As far as total free amino acid was concern, Spondias cytherea recorded highest total free amino acid content (158.67 mg/100 g) showing a wide variation in comparison to Spondias axillaris (25.33 mg/100 g) and Spondias pinnata (22.67 mg/100 g). These wild fruit species under study proved to be a good source of nutrients with a potential to fulfill the nutritional requirements locally.

Chemical Composition and the Cytotoxic, Antimicrobial, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of the Fruit Peel Essential Oil from Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae) in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China.

Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz (Anacardiaceae) is widely distributed in tropical Asia, where it is commonly used as a vegetable and fruit, and is attracting increasing research attention. In this study, we investigated the chemical composition and the cytotoxic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of the fruit peel essential oil of S. pinnata (EOSP), which has been consumed as a medicine and condiment in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. A total of 40 components were identified by Gas Chromatography/Mass spectrometry (GC-MS), representing 95.19% of the EOSP, with furfural (17.14%), α-terpineol (13.09%), and ethyl benzoate (9.05%) as the main constituents. EOSP has moderate cytotoxic activity against five cancer cells and obvious antimicrobial activity against five pathogenic strains. In particular, EOSP (Minimal Inhibitory and Fungicidal Concentration, MIC and MFC, 16‒32 µg/mL) showed a 32-times higher inhibition effect against Aspergillus fumigatus than the positive control Tigecycline (MIC and MBC 512‒1024 µg/mL). EOSP also showed strong anti-inflammatory activity by significantly inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 cell lines at 0.08‰, with no effect on cell viability. These bioactivities of S. pinnata fruit peel validate its traditional uses and suggest that it could be a new source of natural antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agents for food or medical industries.

First Record of the Nest Orientation of Apis Dorsata in Relation to Cell Tower

This study is aimed to study the nest orientation of Apis dorsata in relation to cell tower in the Kariavattom panchayat of Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala. The distributions and orientation of nests were observed around 5 km of cell tower using a survey method. Results showed that 60 nests (40 active nests, 20 abandoned combs) of A. dorsata were found. Tree species used as nesting sites were Ficus sp.(Moraceae), Adenanthera sp.(Fabaceae), Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae), Artocarpus sericoarpus (Moraceae), Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), Knema cinerea (Myristicaceae) and Litsea mappacea (Lauraceae).The nests in trees were found in 3-11 meters (5 nests), 11-25 meters (20 nests), and 20-35 meters on buildings (35 nests). Maximum nets on building were noted on the top of Greenfield International Stadium (30 nests). Most of the bee nests were oriented towards South east direction and minimum towards south west direction on buildings and trees. In the South east direction maximum bee hive orientation was noted both on trees and buildings where radiation exposure from cell towers was minimum (0.20 w/m2 ) whereas in the South west direction minimum bee hive orientation was recorded where the radiation exposure was maximum (9.20w/m2 ).

IDENTIFIKASI LEBAH KELULUT ASAL BANGKA DAN PENDATAAN JENIS TUMBUHAN PENGHASIL RESIN BAHAN BAKU PEMBUATAN PROPOLIS

Resin is a substance needed by bees to produce a product, namely propolis. Resins are produced by plants as secondary metabolites. The diversity of plant species will affect the composition of active compounds in propolis. The more diverse types of plants will increase the quality of propolis. The purpose of this study was to identify the type of Kelulut bee and record and identify plants that were planted in bee culture, Pangkal Beras (West Bangka) and Lubuk Lingkuk (Central Bangka). Data collection on plant species is done by interview and exploration methods. The results of identification Kelulut bee in Pangkal Beras and Lubuk Lingkuk are Heterotrigona itama and Tetragonula fuscobalteata. There are ten types of resin-producing plants in both locations, namely Artocarpus integra Merr., Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam, Aquilaria malaccensis Benth., Cratoxylum glaucum Korth., Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T.Anderson, Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.Juss.) Müll. Arg., Macaranga triloba Müll. Arg., Mangifera odorata Griff., Mangifera indica Thwaites, and Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.

Microbiological Quality, Hygiene, and Sanitation of the Production Processes of a Traditional Beverage at Tourism Areas in Bali.

Loloh Cemcem, a traditional beverage containing Cemcem leaves of (Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz) from the tourism area of Penglipuran, has been widely distributed across Bali. This study aims to examine the microbiological quality of Loloh Cemcem and its association with hygiene and the sanitation of its production processes. A cross-sectional study was conducted, involving all home industries that produce Loloh Cemcem and its handlers, four water depots, and three samples of water source in Penglipuran, Bali. Observations and interviews were conducted to obtain data on hygiene and sanitation. Samples were tested for microbiological qualities, including total plate count (TPC), most probable number (MPN) method for coliform, and Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) examination was conducted to identify virulent genes. The water source was contaminated with enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), and about 25% of water depots and 43.3% of Loloh Cemcem samples were also contaminated with E. coli. This indicates E. coli viability under an acidic medium (average pH of 2.8). Of the 30 home industries, 76.7% of sanitation facilities met the safety standards, while the conditions were considerably lower for instrument sanitation (60.0%), personal hygiene of the handlers (50.0%), and production site sanitation (43.3%). Poor personal hygiene of the handlers was associated with the microbiological quality of Loloh Cemcem with an adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of 15.02 (95%CI: 1.32-171.56, P = 0.029). Ongoing monitoring is warranted to improve personal hygiene and sanitation of the production processes. Microbiological research is essential to understand the nature of E. coli, including its viability in acidic environments.

Cholinesterase-inhibiting Potential and Anti-BACE1 Activities of Edible Leaves of Selected Thai Local Plants

Alzhiemer’s disease (AD) is common amongst the elderly and is associated with decline in brain functions in terms of memory and cognitive loss. The causes of the disease may occur through loss of presynaptic markers of cholinergic system and deposition of amyloid fibrils in the brain. Cholinesterases (ChEs) including acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) are the key enzymes controlling degradation of neurotransmitters, acetylcholines (AChs), in cholinergic hypothesis. Whereas overproduction of b-secretase (BACE1) can generate insoluble b-amyloid peptides. Thus, retardation on enzyme reactions can lead to potential AD prevention. The aim of this research was to investigate in vitro anti-AD activity through key enzymes inhibitions from Thai local plants with edible sour leaves, including Garcinia cowa Roxb., Spondias pinnata (Linn.f.) Kurz, Syzygium gratum (Wight) S.N. Mitra., Tamarind indica L. and Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Dyer. Leaves were extracted in organic solvents with different polarity index values (ethanol and hexane). As results, all plants possessed different degrees of anti-ChEs activity, in which ethanolic extracts of Spondias pinnata and Tamarind indica exhibited significantly higher ChEs inhibitory activities than Syzygium gratum, Garcinia cowa and Cratoxylum formosum, respectively. Interestingly, most hexane extracts exhibited higher anti-AChE activities than ethanol extracts, while the contrary results were observed in anti-BChE activity. Besides, only Cratoxylum formosum, Garcinia cowa and Tamarind indica extracts possessed anti-BACE1 activity. The information received from this study would be great support of future drug development or nutraceutical agents against AD occurrence regarding its cholinergic and b-amyloid formation hypotheses.

Spectrophotometric estimation of ascorbic acid and total phenol and flavonoid contents of certain fruits in Sivasagar, Assam, India

Fruits contain various biologically active compounds and vitamins that can promote certain synergistic and health-related activities which signify the phrase that “fruit juices are the pure gifts from mother nature”. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) cannot be synthesized by humans directly hence needs to be supplemented with the diet of their natural form. Besides the biologically active compounds such as phenols and flavonoids which is the natural source of antioxidants, ascorbic acid plays a vital role in various beneficial activities. The present studies were conducted to estimate the phenol and flavonoid, and ascorbic acid contents in fruits like Spondias pinnata (L.F.) Kurz., Psidium guajava L., Syzynium cumini (L.) Skeels., Syzynium jambos((L.) Alston., Prunus persica (L.) Stokes and Pyrus communis L. were estimated by the spectrophotometric method. The vitamin C, total phenol and flavonoid contents were determined by the standard protocol. The vitamin C estimation was found highest in P. guajava (0.300±0.030) followed by S. cumini (0.280±0.039) and S. jambos (0.027±0.021). The phenol content was found significantly highest in S. cumini (0.153±0.013) followed by S. jambos (0.127±0.018) and P. guajava (0.123±0.018). Also the flavonoid content was observed highest in P. guajava (0.587±0.067), S. jambos (0.245±0.074) and S. cumini (0.192±0.056). The results of the present investigation were analyzed statistically by using ANOVA single factor analysis and the p value was found less than the significant level (p < 0.05). The data so obtained reflects that the fleshy fruits are an important source of phytochemicals with potent antioxidant activity.

Phytochemical Screening, Free Radical Scavenging and α-Amylase Inhibitory Activities of Selected Medicinal Plants from Western Nepal.

Background: More than 700 plants are reported to be used for medicinal purposes in Nepal; however, many of them are not studied for their scientific evidences. The aims of the present study were the estimation of the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and the evaluation of the free radical scavenging and α-amylase inhibitory activities of five selected medicinal plants from western Nepal: Aeschynanthus parviflorus Wall. (Gesneriaceae), Buddleja asiatica Lour. (Loganiaceae), Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae), Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f. (Gramineae) and Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz (Anacardiaceae). Methods: The total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were measured using Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent and aluminium chloride methods, respectively. A 1,1–diphenyl–2–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay was used to evaluate the free radical scavenging activity and an α-amylase inhibitory assay was carried out to determine the in vitro antidiabetic activity. Results: The phytochemical screening of five hydroalcoholic plant extracts revealed the presence of various secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, flavonoids, reducing sugars, saponins, terpenoids and tannins. The amounts of total phenolics and flavonoids were found to be the highest in B. asiatica leaf extract, which also showed the most potent free radical scavenging activity. Extract of C. papaya fruits showed the highest α-amylase inhibitory activity, whereas the extracts of B. asiatica leaves and S. pinnata leaves exhibited moderate activity. Conclusions: Some of the medicinal plants selected in this study showed high TPC and TFC values and potent bioactivities. These results may provide the scientific evidences of the traditional uses of these plants. However, further detailed studies on bioactive compounds isolation and identification and evaluation of in vivo pharmacological activities should be performed in future.

Wild edible fruits of Meghalaya, North-East India: an unexplored potential for nutritional security and economic prosperity

The northeastern region of India, being one of the mega hot spots of plant biodiversity in the world is considered as one of the richest reservoirs of genetic variability and diversity of various horticultural crops including fruits. This region contains more than one third of the country's total fruit diversity. In addition to commercial fruits, the region is also known for its rich genetic resources of underutilized and underexploited fruits. These fruits are neither grown commercially on large scale nor traded widely. They are scattered only in wild forest or semi-wild in homestead gardens and remained uncared for albeit with large variability and are traded and consumed locally. Considerable diversity exists among these species in plant type, morphological and physiological characteristics, adaptability and distribution. They can be grown under stress and adverse conditions and are also known for their medicinal, therapeutic and nutritive values. These fruits, from time immemorial are known to play an important role in food and nutritional supplement of rural community. Most of them are very rich sources of vitamins, minerals along with carbohydrates, proteins and fats. This region harbors a good number of underutilized and under exploited species viz., Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lackoocha, Averrhoea carambola, Baccaurea ramiflora, Citrus medica, Citrus macroptera, Citrus grandis, Dillenia indica, Elaegnus latifolia, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Emblica officinalis, Ficus semicordata, Garcinia cowa, Passiflora edulis, Phylanthus acidus, Spondias pinnata, Syzigium jambos, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia chebula and many more. Although these fruits contain almost all vitamins and minerals, most of them remained underexploited due to the lack of awareness of their potential, market demand and knowledge of bio-prospecting and value addition. But of now, the genetic resources of such fruits are facing a great threat of extinction due to climate change, large-scale urbanization, changing attitude and taste of peoples and developmental projects. To safeguard the existing diversity of underutilized fruits, systematic exploitation, collection, characterization, multiplication, and conservation of these valuable resources are urgently needed to ensure food and nutritional security of rural populations and to achieve sustainable development of the NE region of India.

Spondias – an underutilized potential fruit crop of West Bengal

Spondias (hog plum and great hog plum), underexploited members of the Anacardiaceae, are growing widely in India for its edible fruits. These deciduous species are tolerant to drought and growing abundantly as fence side trees in West Bengal. Fruits can be eaten fresh, cooked or made into value added products. Unripe fruits can be made into jelly, pickle, chutney or relishes or used for flavouring sauces, soups and stews. In some places young leaves are eaten raw or steamed as vegetable for eating with salted fish and rice. It may play a vital role in nutritional, neutraceutical and in economy of rural people, which has received little research attention. Fruits are reported to be rich in vitamin A, vitamin C and iron content. The fruits are used to treat heart ailments and urinary troubles and are used on wounds, sores and burns and for digestion. The bark is considered useful in dysentery and diarrhea and is also given to prevent vomiting. The root is considered useful in menstruation. The plant is reported to have anti-tubercular properties. So, there is great scope of increasing socio-economic status of rural and tribal people by exploiting these two species viz., Spondias pinnata (hog plum) and Spondias dulcis (great hog plum). Considering its importance, two species growing in West Bengal were reviewed with an objective of exploiting this crop.