Spokane River Research Articles

Fine‐Scale Population Structure of Rainbow Trout in the Spokane River Drainage in Relation to Hatchery Stocking and Barriers

AbstractWe used 13 microsatellite loci to examine population structure in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss collected from 20 tributaries and 3 main stems in the greater Spokane River drainage. Populations displayed some excess homozygosity and linkage disequilibrium, which was more pronounced in upper tributary collections and probably the result of small effective population sizes or structuring within tributaries. In general, population structure followed geographic structure; collections from creeks within sub‐drainages were the most closely related, and collections from different tributaries were genetically distinct. Comparisons with cutthroat trout O. clarkii indicated little to no introgression. Comparisons with steelhead (anadromous rainbow trout), coastal rainbow trout O. mykiss irideus, and inland rainbow trout from hatcheries suggested introgression by hatchery fish into some wild populations. Introgression was suspected in populations from stocked tributaries and tributaries that lacked barriers to escaped hatchery fish. Populations from tributaries above barriers that had not been stocked were genetically distinct from hatchery fish and appeared to be native inland redband trout O. mykiss gairdneri.

Research Article: Collaborative Relicensing Revisited: The Spokane River Alternative Licensing Process

Research Article: Collaborative Relicensing Revisited: The Spokane River Alternative Licensing Process

Blood Lead Concentrations in Waterfowl Utilizing Lake Coeur d’Alene, Idaho

The Coeur d'Alene River Basin, Lake Coeur d'Alene, and the Spokane River contain elevated heavy metal concentrations in sediment and water from historical mining and ore processing operations in the Coeur d'Alene Basin. Lead poisoning has been identified as the cause of death in hundreds of waterfowl utilizing wetlands in the floodplain of the Coeur d'Alene River, but little was known about hazards to waterfowl from heavy metal contamination in shallow bays and wetlands of Lake Coeur d'Alene. We examined lake sediment and blood lead concentrations in waterfowl utilizing Lake Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, to evaluate potential lead contamination of waterfowl utilizing the lake. We collected 56 palustrine and 102 lacustrine sediment samples and 61 mallard and 8 wood duck blood samples. Mean lead concentrations from palustrine and lacustrine sediment samples ranged from 14 to 3508 mg/kg dry weight (dw) and from 19 to 5009 mg/kg (dw), respectively. Lead concentrations in palustrine and lacustrine sediment from several Lake Coeur d'Alene bays were higher than those in lake reference areas and were higher than Bunker Hill Superfund Site target cleanup levels and suggested site-specific toxicity thresholds for swans. Mean blood lead from mallard and wood ducks sampled from Lake Coeur d'Alene bays were within lead toxicity ranges for waterfowl associated with clinical and severe clinical lead poisoning. We also collected 19 Canada goose and 3 mallard fecal samples to evaluate exposure through sediment ingestion. Waterfowl using Lake Coeur d'Alene appear to be exposed to lead by ingesting contaminated lake sediment. Our model predicts a sediment lead effects range of 147-944 mg/kg (dw) and mortality effects level of 1652 mg/kg (dw) for mallards utilizing Lake Coeur d'Alene. The locations of Harrison Slough, Powderhorn Bay, and Cottonwood Bay at the mouth of the Coeur d'Alene River and Blackwell Island and Cougar Bay near the Spokane River outflow of Lake Coeur d'Alene were the areas of greatest concern for waterfowl exposure to lead contaminated sediment.

Pilot Study Application of Tertiary Clarification and Filtration to Meet Proposed Ultra Low Phosphorous Discharge Limits on the Spokane River

Pilot Study Application of Tertiary Clarification and Filtration to Meet Proposed Ultra Low Phosphorous Discharge Limits on the Spokane River

A critical evaluation of public health programs at the Bunker Hill Superfund site

Since 1983, the Bunker Hill Superfund site (BHSS) has been the second largest on US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Priority List for cleanup. Contaminants include millions of tons of Pb, Cd, Hg and As. In 1974, following a bag house fire, 22.1% of young children had blood lead levels >80 μg/dl. In the early 1980s to the present, EPA initiated the cleanup of exterior residential soils and the smelter complex. In 1999, The National Geological Service confirmed that heavy metal pollution had extended from BHSS to Lake Coeur d'Alene (already known earlier) all the way to the Spokane River in Washington State via water borne tributaries linking Idaho and Washington States. This report focuses on public health programs and their results initiated by Federal and State agencies at the BHSS. These programs include blood lead screening, educational programs, exploratory dust control plans, and land transactions. These programs and their results are then evaluated, assessed and critically discussed. The conclusion of this critical evaluation assessment is that the protection of public health has not been adequately addressed or protected by Federal and State agencies.

The effect of mining and related activities on the sediment trace element geochemistry of the Spokane River Basin, Washington, USA

Surface sediments in the Spokane River Basin are enriched in Pb, Zn, As, Cd, Sb, and Hg relative to local background levels. Maximum enrichment occurs in the Upper Spokane River in close proximity to Lake Coeur d'Alene. On average, enrichment decreases downstream. Subsurface sediments also are enriched in Pb, Zn, As, Cd, Sb, and Hg relative to background levels. Enrichment began between 1900 and 1920 in the middle of the basin; this is contemporaneous with similar findings in Lake Coeur d'Alene (the upstream source of the Spokane River), as well as the completion of Long Lake Dam (1913). In the most downstream part of the basin, enrichment began between 1930 and 1940. This temporal shift may reflect the latter's greater distance from the Coeur d'Alene River Basin, the presumptive source of the enriched trace elements, but is more likely the result of the completion of Grand Coulee Dam (1934–1941) which backed up the Spokane River, and elevated water levels by about 30 m in the most downstream part of the basin.

A WATER QUALITY MODEL OF THE SPOKANE RIVER-LONG LAKE SYSTEM USING CE-QUAL-W2

A WATER QUALITY MODEL OF THE SPOKANE RIVER-LONG LAKE SYSTEM USING CE-QUAL-W2A water quality model of the Upper Spokane River system was developed by Portland State University for the Washington Department of Ecology. The model will be used to develop Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL). The Upper Spokane River consists of multiple river and reservoir sections and is located in the Northeastern part of Washington State. The modeled section stretches from the Washington-Idaho...Author(s)Christopher J. BergerRobert L. AnnearScott A. WellsSourceProceedings of the Water Environment FederationSubjectSession 17 Modeling Case StudiesDocument typeConference PaperPublisherWater Environment FederationPrint publication date Jan, 2002ISSN1938-6478SICI1938-6478(20020101)2002:8L.1471;1-DOI10.2175/193864702785071886Volume / Issue2002 / 8Content sourceTMDLS ConferenceFirst / last page(s)1471 - 1496Copyright2002Word count348

Analysis and Occurrence of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Washington State Freshwater Fish

A method is described for analyzing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in fish tissue using gas chromatography with atomic emission detection (GC/AED) and quantitation by compound independent calibration (CIC). The method has the advantage of an element-selective response, including selectivity between bromine and chlorine. An analysis of fish tissue samples from selected locations in Washington State showed total PBDE concentrations ranged from 1.4 microg/kg (wet weight) in rainbow trout from a remote spring-fed stream to 1,250 microg/kg in mountain whitefish from the urbanized Spokane River. Tetra and penta isomers were the major compounds present. There appear to be substantial between-species differences in the ability of fish to metabolize PBDEs.

The effect of mining and related activities on the sediment–trace element geochemistry of Lake Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, USA. Part III. Downstream effects: the Spokane River Basin

During 1998/1999, surface and subsurface sediment samples were collected along the entire length of the Spokane River from its outlet at the northern end of Lake Coeur d'Alene (CDA), Idaho, to Lake Roosevelt on the Columbia River, Washington. The study was conducted to determine if the trace element enrichments observed in Lake CDA and on the floodplain and in the CDA River extend through the Spokane River Basin (SRB). As in Lake CDA, surface sediments in the SRB are enriched in Pb, Zn, As, Cd, Sb and Hg relative to local background levels. Pb, Cd and Zn are the most elevated, with maximum enrichment occurring in the upper Spokane River in close proximity to Lake CDA. On average, enrichment decreases downstream, apparently reflecting both increased distance from the inferred source (the CDA River Basin), as well as increased dilution by locally derived but unenriched materials. Only Cd and Zn display marked enrichment throughout the SRB. Pb, Zn and Cd seem to be associated mainly with an operationally defined iron oxide phase, whereas the majority of the As and Sb seem to be matrix-held. Subsurface sediments also are enriched in Pb, Zn, As, Cd, Sb and Hg relative to background levels. Based on 137Cs and excess 210Pb dating, trace element enrichment began in the middle part of the SRB (Long Lake) between 1900 and 1920. This is contemporaneous with similar enrichments observed in Lake CDA, as well as the completion of Long Lake Dam (1913). In the most downstream part of the basin (Spokane River Arm of Lake Roosevelt), enrichment began substantially later, between 1930 and 1940. The temporal difference in enrichment between Long Lake and the River Arm may reflect the latter's greater distance from the presumed source of the enrichment (the CDA River Basin); however, the difference is more likely the result of the completion of Grand Coulee Dam (1934–1941), which formed Lake Roosevelt, backed up the Spokane River, and increased water levels in the River Arm by about 30 m.

The effect of mining and related activities on the sediment–trace element geochemistry of Lake Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, USA. Part III. Downstream effects: the Spokane River Basin

AbstractDuring 1998/1999, surface and subsurface sediment samples were collected along the entire length of the Spokane River from its outlet at the northern end of Lake Coeur d'Alene (CDA), Idaho, to Lake Roosevelt on the Columbia River, Washington. The study was conducted to determine if the trace element enrichments observed in Lake CDA and on the floodplain and in the CDA River extend through the Spokane River Basin (SRB).As in Lake CDA, surface sediments in the SRB are enriched in Pb, Zn, As, Cd, Sb and Hg relative to local background levels. Pb, Cd and Zn are the most elevated, with maximum enrichment occurring in the upper Spokane River in close proximity to Lake CDA. On average, enrichment decreases downstream, apparently reflecting both increased distance from the inferred source (the CDA River Basin), as well as increased dilution by locally derived but unenriched materials. Only Cd and Zn display marked enrichment throughout the SRB. Pb, Zn and Cd seem to be associated mainly with an operationally defined iron oxide phase, whereas the majority of the As and Sb seem to be matrix‐held.Subsurface sediments also are enriched in Pb, Zn, As, Cd, Sb and Hg relative to background levels. Based on 137Cs and excess 210Pb dating, trace element enrichment began in the middle part of the SRB (Long Lake) between 1900 and 1920. This is contemporaneous with similar enrichments observed in Lake CDA, as well as the completion of Long Lake Dam (1913). In the most downstream part of the basin (Spokane River Arm of Lake Roosevelt), enrichment began substantially later, between 1930 and 1940. The temporal difference in enrichment between Long Lake and the River Arm may reflect the latter's greater distance from the presumed source of the enrichment (the CDA River Basin); however, the difference is more likely the result of the completion of Grand Coulee Dam (1934–1941), which formed Lake Roosevelt, backed up the Spokane River, and increased water levels in the River Arm by about 30 m.

Concentrations of metals associated with mining waste in sediments, biofilm, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish from the Coeur d'Alene River basin, Idaho.

Arsenic, Cd, Cu, Pb, Hg, and Zn were measured in sediments, biofilm, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish from the Coeur d'Alene (CDA) River to characterize the pathway of metals transfer between these components. Metals enter the CDA Basin via tributaries where mining activities have occurred. In general, the ranking of food-web components from the greatest to smallest concentrations of metals was as follows: biofilm (the layer of abiotic and biotic material on rock surfaces) and sediments > invertebrates > whole fish. Elevated Pb was documented in invertebrates, and elevated Cd and Zn were documented in sediment and biofilm approximately 80 km downstream to the Spokane River. The accumulation of metals in invertebrates was dependent on functional feeding group and shredders-scrapers that feed on biofilm accumulated the largest concentrations of metals. Although the absolute concentrations of metals were the largest in biofilm and sediments, the metals have accumulated in fish approximately 50 km downstream from Kellogg, near the town of Harrison. While metals do not biomagnify between trophic levels, the metals in the CDA Basin are bioavailable and do biotransfer. Trout less than 100 mm long feed exclusively on small invertebrates, and small invertebrates accumulate greater concentrations of metals than large invertebrates. Therefore, early-lifestage fish may be exposed to a larger dose of metals than adults.

Modelling Radon Entry into Houses with Basements: Model Description and Verification

We model radon entry into basements using a previously developed three-dimensional steady-state finite difference model that has been modified in the following ways: first, cylindrical coordinates are used to take advantage of the symmetry of the problem in the horizontal plane, thereby increasing resolution and computing eficiency without signifiant loss of generality; second, the configuration of the basement has been made m e realistic by incorporating the concrete fmtm which sup ports the basement walls and floor; third, a quadratic relationship between the pressure and flow in the L-shaped gap between slab, footer, and wall has been employed; and fourth, the natural convection of the soil gas which follows from the heating of the basement in winter has been taken into account. The temperature field in the soil is determined fiom the equation of energy consmation, using the basement, surface, and deep-soil temperatures as boundary conditions. The pressure field is determined from Darcy's law and the equation of mass conservation (continuity), assuming that there is nofIow across any boundary except the soil surface (atmospheric pressure) and the opening in the basement shell (fixed pressure), Since the energy conservation equation includes both heat advection and conduction, the temperature and pressure equations must be coupled. After the pressure and temperature fields have been obtained, the velocity field is found fiom Darcy's h. Finally, the radon concentration field is found from the equation of mass-transport, assuming that diffusive entry through openings may be neglected. The convective radon entry rate through the opening or openings is then calculated. In this paper we describe the modified model, compare the predicted radon entry rates with and without the consideration of thermal convection, and compare the predicted rates with rates determined from data from seven houses in the Spokane River valley of Washington and Idaho. Although the predicted rate is much lower than the mean of the rates determined from measurements, er-TOTS in the measurement of soil permeability and variations in the permeability of the area immediately under the basement slab, which has a signifiant influence on the pressure field, can account for the range of entry rates inferredfiom the data.

Effectiveness of Radon Control Techniques in Fifteen Homes

Radon control systems were installed and evaluated in fourteen homes in the Spokane River Valley/Rathdrum Prairie and in one home in Vancouver, Washington. Because of local soil conditions, subsurface ventilation (SSV) by pressurization was always more effective in these houses than SSV by depressurization in reducing indoor radon levels to below guidelines. Basement overpressurization was successfully applied in five houses with airtight basements where practical-sized fans could develop an overpressure of 1 to 3 Pascals. Crawlspace ventilation was more effective than crawlspace isolation in reducing radon entry from the crawlspace, but had to be used in conjunction with other mitigation techniques, since the houses also had basements. Indoor radon concentrations in two houses with air-to-air heat exchangers (AAHX) were reduced to levels inversely dependent on the new total ventilation rates and were lowered even further in one house where the air distribution system was modified. Sealing penetrations in the below-grade surfaces of substructures was relatively ineffective in controlling radon. Operation of the radon control systems (except for the AAHX's) made no measureable change in ventilation rates or indoor concentrations of other measured pollutants. Installation costs by treated floor area ranged from approximately $4/m2 for sealing to $28/m2 for the AAHX's. Based on the low electric rates for the region, annual operating costs for the active systems were estimated to be approximately $60 to $170.

Characterizing the Occurrence, Sources, and Variability of Radon in Pacific Northwest Homes

A compilation of data from earlier studies of 172 homes in the Pacific Northwest indicated that approximately 65 percent of the 46 homes tested in the Spokane River Valley/Rathdrum Prairie region of eastern Washington/northern Idaho had heating season indoor radon (222Rn) concentrations above the U. S. EPA guideline of 148 Bq m-3 (4 pCi L-1). A subset of 35 homes was selected for additional study. The primary source of indoor radon in the Spokane River Valley/Rathdrum Prairie was pressure-driven flow of soil gas containing moderate radon concentrations (geometric mean concentration of 16,000 Bq m-3) from the highly permeable soils (geometric mean permeability of 5 x 10(-11) m2) surrounding the house substructures. Estimated soil gas entry rates ranged from 0.4 to 39 m3h-1 and 1 percent to 21 percent of total building air infiltration. Radon from other sources, including domestic water supplies and building materials was negligible. In high radon homes, winter indoor levels averaged 13 times higher than summer concentrations, while in low radon homes winter levels averaged only 2.5 times higher. Short-term variations in indoor radon were observed to be dependent upon indoor-outdoor temperature differences, wind speed, and operation of forced-air furnace fans. Forced-air furnace operation, along with leaky return ducts and plenums, and openings between the substructure and upper floors enhanced mixing of radon-laden substructure air throughout the rest of the building.

Prediction of nuisance periphytic biomass: A management approach

Model predictions of periphyton biomass, as a function of ambient SRP concentration, were compared against observed biomass accrual on natural and artificial substrates in the Spokane River, Washington. A range in biomass was predicted based on uncertainties due to temperature, velocity, accumulation period and an empirical growth constant. Only 8 of 47 observed biomass values exceed the lowest biomass predictions, which supports the contention that the model represents the maximum potential biomass. Using the SRP concentration that would produce a threshold nuisance biomass (150–200 mg ch α/m 2), an approach is proposed for controlling the stream distance for which periphytic biomass exceeds the nuisance level. For the Spokane River, critical distance with biomass exceeding 200 mg chl α/m 2 may exceed 10 km unless SRP is held below 10 μg/l.

October streamflow

Record lows were set for streamflow in the Pacific northwest and in the southwestern Appalachians in October 1987. The Spokane River at Spokane, Wash., the Columbia River at The Dalles, Oreg., and the Yellowstone River at Corwin Springs, Mont., were among the rivers breaking low‐flow records that had stood for nearly 100 years. Fifty‐year lows were reported for the Tombigbee River near Coatopa, Ala., and the Green River at Munfordville, Ky.The U.S. Geological Survey reported that the combined flow of the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, and Columbia Rivers was 14% below median at 551,400 cubic feet per second (cfs). Mean October elevations of the Great Lakes (provisional National Ocean Service data) was lower in October than it was in September and was lower than it had been in October 1986. The Great Salt Lake fell 0.15 ft (0.04 m) during October, reaching 4209.25 ft (1282.97 m) above National Geodetic Vertical Datum.

Hooking Mortality of Walleyes Captured in Porcupine Bay, Washington

Abstract Two groups of walleyes Stizostedion vitreum were captured at Porcupine Bay, an embayment of the Spokane River near its entrance to Lake Roosevelt, Washington. One group of 180 fish was caught on hook and line and put in a floating net-pen. Another group (controls) of 164 walleyes was captured by electrofishing and put in a second floating net-pen, identical to the first. After 12 d, the total mortality in both groups was one fish taken by angling. A second fish taken by hook and line was injured, and its survival was doubtful. With a total loss of two fish, the hooking mortality was determined to be 1.1%.

Use of fish gill and liver tissue to monitor zinc pollution.

Many aquatic organisms bioconcentrate heavy metals such as zinc from surrounding waters. Gill and liver tissue appear to be the best tissue for analysis if fish are to be used as biomonitors of zinc pollution. The Spokane River in eastern Washington is contaminated by zinc due to mining and smeltering operations in northern Idaho. A recent analysis indicated that the zinc concentrations in the Spokane River have decreased by 50% between 1973 and 1978 from a mean annual concentration of 320 ..mu..g/l to 160 ..mu..g/l. The objective of this research was to estimate zinc bioconcentration and determine if the zinc concentrations in gill and liver tissue of these wild salmonids has decreased with the decline in ambient concentrations.

The Cause of Continued Hypolimnetic Anoxia in Long Lake, WA, Following Advanced Wastewater Treatment by the City of Spokane

ABSTRACT Long Lake, an impoundment of the Spokane River, was eutrophic prior to 1978. Extensive hypolimnetic anoxia, excessive summer algal growth and limited water clarity existed as a result of nutrient loading from the City of Spokane's primary sewage treatment plant. Advanced wastewater treatment (Am) began in the fall of 1977 with a process for 85 percent phosphorus removal. Investigations during post-AWT years (1978–1981) have shown significant reductions in phosphorus loading with corresponding declines in chlorophyll a, phytoplankton biovolume, primary productivity and increased water clarity to levels characteristic of mesotrophy. Hokever, anoxia has continued to exist, although the degree of anoxia has been considerably less. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between various measures of oxygen demand and the phytoplankton community in Long Lake with AWT “on-line”. Biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand and sediment oxygen demand were determined. Sediment ox...

THE IMPROVED WATER QUALITY OF LONG LAKE FOLLOWING ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT BY THE CITY OF SPOKANE, WASHINGTON

ABSTRACT Long Lake, Wash., an impoundment of the Spokane River, has experienced high algal standing crop; low water clarity and extensive hypolimnetic anoxia during summer stratification. The City of Spokane's primary sewage treatment plant was shown to be the primary contributor of phosphorus to the reservoir and the major cause of its eutrophic state. To reduce influent phosphorus (P) loading and improve Long Lake's water quality, the city provided advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) with chemical (alum) phosphorus removal in 1977. Monthly mean P load from the AWT plant has decreased approximately 90 percent and the overall load to the reservoir during the growing season (June-October) has declined about 74 percent. Mean post-AWT reservoir algal biovolumes and chlorophyll a concentrations are approximately 60 and 45 percent, respectively, less than pre-AWT values. A phosphorus load–chlorophyll a relationship, based on 5 years each of pre- and post-AWT data, was developed and provided excellent predictions of mean reservoir chlorophyll a concentrations for the growing season. As a result of AWT, Long Lake has changed from a eutrophic to a mesotrophic body of water. In studying the effects of reduced P loading, it was determined that seasonal chemical phosphorus removal (April through October) could be as effective in reducing algal growth in Long Lake as year-around removal. This conclusion was based on the premise that temperature was the primary limiting variable outside the growing season. The city was granted a change in their AWT plant discharge permit and has implemented seasonal chemical P removal with no detrimental effects on the improved water quality of Long Lake.