Spine Kinematics Research Articles

The Effect That Induced Rider Asymmetry Has on Equine Locomotion and the Range of Motion of the Thoracolumbar Spine When Ridden in Rising Trot

There is a paucity of evidence on the effect that rider asymmetry has on equine locomotion. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of rider asymmetry on equine locomotion by using a novel approach to induce rider asymmetry. Ten nonlame horses were recruited for this study. Joint center markers were used to capture 2D kinematics (Quintic Biomechanics) of the horse and rider and horses were equipped with seven inertial sensors positioned at the fifth (T5) and eighteenth (T18) thoracic vertebrae, third lumbar (L3) vertebra, tubera sacrale (TS), and left and right tubera coxae. Rider asymmetry was induced by shortening the ventral aspect of one stirrup by 5 cm. Kinematic data were compared between conditions using a mixed model with the horse defined as a random factor and stirrup condition (symmetrical stirrups and asymmetrical stirrups) and direction (inside and outside) defined as fixed factors. Data from riders where the right stirrup was shortened were mirrored to reflect a left stirrup being shortened. To determine differences between conditions, a significance of P ≤ .05 was set. On the rein with the shortened stirrup on the outside: an increase in lateral bending range of motion (ROM) at T5 (P = .003), L3 (P = .04), and TS (P = .02), an increase in mediolateral displacement at T5 (P = .04), T18 (P = .04), and L3 (0.03) were found. An increase in maximum fetlock extension was apparent for both the front (P = .01) and hind limb (P = .04) on the contralateral side to the shortened stirrup; for the asymmetrical stirrup condition on the rein with the shortened stirrup on the inside: an increase in flexion-extension ROM at T5 (P = .03) and L3 (P = .04), axial rotation at T5 (P = .05), and lateral bending of T5 (P = .03), L3 (P = .04), and TS (P = .02). Asymmetric rider position appears to have an effect on the kinematics of the thoracolumbar spine. These findings warrant further investigation to understand the long-term impact this may have on equine locomotor health.

Biomechanical comparison of noncontiguous cervical disc arthroplasty and noncontiguous cervical discectomy and fusion in the treatment of noncontinuous cervical degenerative disc disease: a finite element analysis

BackgroundBiomechanical characteristics of noncontinuous ACDF and noncontinuous CDA in the treatment of noncontinuous cervical degenerative disc disease were still unclear. The aim of this research is to compare the differences between these two kinds of treatment methods and to verify the effectiveness of Prodisc-C in noncontinuous CDA.MethodsEight FEMs of the cervical spine (C2–C7) were built based on CT images of 8 mild CDDD volunteers. In the arthroplasty group, we inserted Prodisc-C at C3/4 and C5/6. In the fusion group, CoRoent® Contour and NuVasive® Helix ACP were implanted at C3/4 and C5/6. Initial loads of 75 N were used to simulate the head weight and muscle forces. The application of 1.0 N m moment on the top on the C2 vertebra was used to create motion in all directions. Statistical analyses were performed using STATA version 14.0 (Stata Corp LP, College Station, Texas, USA). Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.ResultsThe IDPs in C2/3 (P < 0.001, P = 0.005, P < 0.001, P < 0.001), C4/5 (P < 0.001), and C6/7 (P < 0.001) of the intact group were significantly less than that in the fusion group in flexion, extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation, respectively. In addition, the IDPs in C2/3 (P < 0.001, P = 0.001, P < 0.001, P < 0.001), C4/5 (P < 0.001), and C6/7 (P < 0.001) of the arthroplasty group were significantly less than that in the fusion group in flexion, extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation, respectively. Contact forces of facet joints in C2/3 (P = 0.010) in the arthroplasty group was significantly less than that in the intact group. Contact forces of facet joints in C2/3 (P < 0.001), C4/5 (P < 0.001), and C6/7 (P < 0.001) in the arthroplasty group was significantly less than that in the fusion group. Contact forces of facet joints in C2/3 (P < 0.001), C4/5 (P < 0.001), and C6/7 (P < 0.001) in the intact group were significantly less than that in the fusion group.ConclusionsNoncontinuous CDA could preserve IDP and facet joint forces at the adjacent and intermediate levels to maintain the kinematics of cervical spine near preoperative values. However, noncontinuous ACDF would increase degenerative risks at adjacent and intermediate levels. In addition, the application of Prodisc-C in noncontinuous CAD may have more advantages than that of Prestige LP.

Spinal kyphotic alignment changes spinal movement strategy during lateral reaching motion while in a sitting position.

[Purpose] This study investigated spine kinematics during normal sitting and flexion sitting with lateral reaching using a three-dimensional motion analysis system. [Participants and Methods] Nineteen healthy young adult males participated in this study. While seated, each participant was asked to reach toward the right using his right hand. Spine angles were defined as T1, T4, T8, L1, and L5 segments. Kinematic data were calculated using the Euler angle and compared to normal sitting and flexion sitting. During flexion sitting, each participant wore a trunk flexion brace. [Results] In the frontal plane, the angle of the T8 segment during flexion sitting was significantly less than during normal sitting. In the axial plane, there were significant differences among the T4, L1, and L5 segments. [Conclusion] Changes in spinal alignment decrease spinal movement and change the movement strategy during lateral reaching while seated.

Multiobjective Design Optimization of a Biconcave Mobile-Bearing Lumbar Total Artificial Disk Considering Spinal Kinematics, Facet Joint Loading, and Metal-on-Polyethylene Contact Mechanics.

Total disk arthroplasty (TDA) using an artificial disk (AD) is an attractive surgical technique for the treatment of spinal disorders, since it can maintain or restore spinal motion (unlike interbody fusion). However, adverse surgical outcomes of contemporary lumbar TDAs have been reported. We previously proposed a new mobile-bearing AD design concept featuring a biconcave ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) mobile core. The objective of this study was to develop an artificial neural network (NN) based multiobjective optimization framework to refine the biconcave-core AD design considering multiple TDA performance metrics, simultaneously. We hypothesized that there is a tradeoff relationship between the performance metrics in terms of range of motion (ROM), facet joint force (FJF), and polyethylene contact pressure (PCP). By searching the resulting three-dimensional (3D) Pareto frontier after multiobjective optimization, it was found that there was a "best-tradeoff" AD design, which could balance all the three metrics, without excessively sacrificing each metric. However, for each single-objective optimum AD design, only one metric was optimal, and distinct sacrifices were observed in the other two metrics. For a commercially available biconvex-core AD design, the metrics were even worse than the poorest outcomes of the single-objective optimum AD designs. Therefore, multiobjective design optimization could be useful for achieving native lumbar segment biomechanics and minimal PCPs, as well as for improving the existing lumbar motion-preserving surgical treatments.

Are neuromuscular adaptations present in people with recurrent spinal pain during a period of remission? A protocol for a systematic review

IntroductionThe course of spinal pain (neck or low back pain) is often described as episodic and intermittent, with more than one-third of people continuing to experience episodic symptoms 1 year...

Comparison of M6-C and Mobi-C cervical total disc replacement for cervical degenerative disc disease in adults.

Cervical total disc replacement (CTDR) is complicated by adjacent segment degeneration (ASD). Since non-physiological spine kinematics after CTDR was postulated to cause ASD, M6-C prosthesis has been developed to better replicate the natural kinematics of the intervertebral disc. This retrospective cohort study aims to compare the short-term outcomes between patients receiving either the M6-C or Mobi-C prostheses. Patients who had refractory radiculopathy and/or myelopathy secondary to cervical degenerative disc disease and underwent CTDR between March 2004 and April 2017 were included. All CTDRs were performed by a single surgeon at a single institution. Self-reported clinical outcomes and radiological parameters were evaluated at baseline and final follow-up between March 2004 and April 2018. Sixty-two patients with greater than 1-year follow-up or who developed HO within 12 months of surgery, were included in the study. The mean radiological follow-up was 29.0 months (3-84 months), which includes 7 patients with less than 12 months follow-up who also developed HO. The changes in clinical and radiological measures were comparable between M6-C and Mobi-C prostheses. Thirty-seven out of 52 spinal segments (71.2%) and 10 out of 16 spinal segments (62.5%) developed HO in M6-C and Mobi-C group respectively. There was no significant difference in the rate of HO between the two groups. No short-term differences were found in clinical or radiological outcomes between patients who received either the M6-C or Mobi-C prosthesis. Further randomized trials with a long-term follow-up period are warranted to determine the safety and efficacy of M6-C prosthesis.

Which is the best-suited landmark to assess the thoracic orientation?

Several skin surface-based techniques exist to non-invasively determine the spinal kinematics. However, the accuracy of these techniques is limited by soft-tissue artefacts. Furthermore, structures like the thorax are frequently assumed to be rigid but display considerable mobility within itself. This study aimed to quantify the accuracy at different thoracic landmarks for measuring mobility in healthy individuals during different activities to provide a recommendation for the best suited measurement location.The locations of 29 landmarks were continuously captured on 19 individuals (age: 25–59 years) during sitting, standing, walking, jumping, intra-thoracic motions, and different breathing depths using reflective markers. Marker triplets were used at every landmark to calculate their orientations by first backtracking the rigid-body motion (RBM) of the thorax in general, and subsequently calculating the RBM of each rigid marker triplet. Of the latter, the maximum axis angle for each exercise was statistically evaluated.Landmarks at the middle of the clavicles displayed the largest overall errors (approximately 90° during worst case scenario). However, the variability of errors among the investigated exercises was large. Landmarks at the cranial sternal region (particularly at the “Louis angle”) and at the T3 spinous process showed the smallest errors for all subjects and tasks (e.g., <5° and <11°, respectively, during normal breathing).When only one sensor is to be used, it is recommended to use the cranial sternal region to assess the thoracic orientation. Study results highly sensitive to thoracic orientation should be considered with care or performed using more appropriate methods.

Center of rotation locations during lumbar spine movements: a scoping review protocol.

The objective of this review is to identify and map current literature describing the center of rotation locations and migration paths during lumbar spine movements. Altered lumber spine kinematics has been associated with pain and injury. Intervertebral segments' center of rotations, the point around which spinal segments rotate, are important for determining the features of lumbar spine kinematics and the potential for increased injury risk during movements. Although many studies have investigated the center of rotations of humans' lumbar spine, no review has summarized and organized the state of the science related to center of rotation locations and migration paths of the lumbar spine during lumbar spine movements. This review will consider studies that include human lumbar spines of any age and condition (e.g. heathy, pathological) during lumbar spine movements. Quantitative study designs, including clinical, observational, laboratory biomechanical experimental studies, mathematical and computer modeling studies will be considered. Only studies published in English will be included, and there will be no limit on dates of publication. PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Library Controlled Register of Trials, CINAHL, ACM Digital Library, Compendex, Inspec, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and dissertation and theses repositories will be searched. After title and abstract screening of identified references, two independent reviewers will screen the full-text of identified studies and extract data. Data will be summarized and categorized, and a comprehensive narrative summary will be presented with the respective results.

Upper Body Posture and Muscle Activation in Recreational Cyclists: Immediate Effects of Variable Cycling Setups

ABSTRACTPurpose: Discomfort during cycling can be counteracted by adjusting the seat position. However, the influence of changes in cycling position regarding quantitative biomechanical adaptions of the upper body in recreational cyclists is unclear. This study aims to investigate the effects of saddle position and reach distance on upper body kinematics and muscle activation. Methods: Twelve recreational cyclists were investigated in four different sitting positions on an adjustable cycle trainer. Trunk, pelvis, shoulder, elbow and spinal kinematics as well as lower back and elbow extensor activity were analyzed for combinations of normal and shortened reach distance including horizontal and 10° downward inclined saddle positions. Results: An inclined saddle increased activation of elbow extensors by almost 23 ± 8% (p < .01) while a shortened reach distance resulted in a more posterior pelvic tilt of up to 18 ± 2% (p < .01) and less trunk forward lean of 10 ± 9% (p < .01). Shoulder flexion reduced by up to 23 ± 16% (p < .05) while elbow flexion increased by 15 ± 22% (p < .05) with a shortened reach distance. No differences between configurations were found for spinal kinematics and lower back muscle activity. Conclusions: Changing the reach distance showed considerable biomechanical effects on upper body kinematics of the pelvis and trunk rather than on the spine or on lower back muscle activity. For reach distance, most compensation of postural changes of the upper body occurred by changes of shoulder and elbow angles while elbow extensor activation was only altered by saddle downward inclination.

Influence of simulated leg length discrepancy on the spinal kinematics during stance phases

Exploring the walking of LLD are clinically helpful in understanding which LLD level contributed to the changes at the upper limb. The aim of this work was to determine which LLD level during single leg stance and double leg stance contributed to the spinal changes. Eighteen healthy male subjects were induced with 0.5 cm to 4.0 cm height of insoles with interval 0.5 cm accordingly and their spine motion during the stance phase was captured by 5 Oqus cameras and evaluated by using Qualisys Track Manager (QTM) software. The effect of LLD height on spinal kinematics were assessed using spinal curvature parameters which are the lateral bending angle at lumbar (LBAL), the shoulder-girdle and pelvic line bending angle (SPBA) and the shoulder-girdle line and pelvic line rotation angle (SPRA). 4 cm LLD height at double stance phase created a relatively larger LBAL when compared with normal walking. The influence of LLD on SPBA and SPRA was very minimal.

The Spine Kinematics and Center of Pressure Excursion During Functional Task Vertebral Compression Fractures Subjects

The Spine Kinematics and Center of Pressure Excursion During Functional Task Vertebral Compression Fractures Subjects

Thoracic spinal kinematics is affected by the grade of intervertebral disc degeneration, but not by the presence of the ribs: An in vitro study

BACKGROUND CONTEXTThoracic spinal three-dimensional kinematics is widely unknown. For the evaluation of surgical treatments and the complete validation of numerical models, however, kinematic data of the thoracic spine are essential. PURPOSETo identify possible effects of rib presence and grade of intervertebral disc degeneration on thoracic spinal kinematics including three-plane helical axes and instantaneous centers of rotation. DESIGN/SETTINGRadiological grading of intervertebral disc degeneration and in vitro tests using n=8 human thoracic functional spinal units of the segmental levels T1–T2, T3–T4, T5–T6, T7–T8, T9–T10, and T11–T12, respectively, were performed with as well as without ribs to analyze the specific kinematic properties. METHODSSpecimens were loaded with pure moments of 5 Nm and constant loading rates of 1°/s in flexion/extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation. Optical motion tracking was performed to visualize helical axes and instantaneous centers of rotation on three-plane X-rays and to evaluate primary ranges of motion (ROMs) and coupled motions. RESULTSMotion segments with no or mild disc degeneration showed reproducible kinematics in all motion planes, whereas medium or severely degenerated specimens offered high variations and shifts of the rotational axes to the distal direction as well as lower ROM. Coupled motions were generally not detected. CONCLUSIONSWith progressing disc degeneration, the rotational axes show higher variation and tend to shift in distal direction, especially in flexion/extension with a shift to the anterior direction, whereas rib resection does not affect thoracic spinal kinematics but its stability. Rib resections as part of spinal deformity treatment destabilize the thoracic spine, but do not alter its kinematics. Young and healthy discs, however, could be affected by surgical treatments of the thoracic spine regarding thoracic spinal kinematics.

Implementation of physiological functional spinal units in a rigid-body model of the thoracolumbar spine

Most of the current rigid-body models of the complete thoracolumbar spine do not properly model the intervertebral joint as the highly nonlinear stiffness is not incorporated comprehensively and the effects of compressive load on stiffness is commonly being neglected. Based on published in vitro data of individual intervertebral joint flexibility, multi-level six degree-of-freedom nonlinear stiffness of functional spinal units was modelled and incorporated in a rigid-body model of the thoracolumbar spine. To estimate physiological in vivo conditions of the entire spine, stiffening effects caused by directly applied compressive loads, and contributions to mono-segmental stiffness from the rib cage as well as multi-segmental interactions in the thoracic spine were analysed and implemented. Forward dynamic simulations were performed to simulate in vitro tests that measured the load-displacement response of the spine under various loading conditions. The predicted kinematic responses of the model were in agreement with in vitro measurements, with correlations between simulated and measured segmental displacements varying between 0.66 and 0.97 (p < 0.05) and average deviations below 1.6°. Coupling relationships were found between lateral bending and axial rotation. Under compressive loads, the model behaved stiffer and showed a decreased range of motion: The flexion/extension response of the full thoracolumbar spine under compressive loads up to 800 N was found to strongly correlate with the literature (r = 0.99, p < 0.0001). The implementation of physiological functional spinal units with nonlinear stiffness properties into rigid-body models can enhance accuracy of biomechanical simulations, and enable detailed analysis of spinal kinematics under complex loading conditions seen in vivo.

Analysis of adjacent-segment cervical kinematics: the role of construct length and the dorsal ligamentous complex.

Lateral mass fixation stabilizes the cervical spine while causing minimal morbidity and resulting in high fusion rates. Still, with 2 years of follow-up, approximately 6% of patients who have undergone posterior cervical fusion have worsening kyphosis or symptomatic adjacent-segment disease. Based on the length of the construct, the question of whether to extend the fixation system to undisrupted levels has not been answered for the cervical spine. The authors conducted a study to quantify the role of construct length and the terminal dorsal ligamentous complex in the adjacent-segment kinematics of the subaxial cervical spine. In vitro flexibility testing was performed using 6 human cadaveric specimens (C2-T8), with the upper thoracic rib cage and osseous and ligamentous integrity intact. An industrial robot was used to apply pure moments and to measure segmental motion at each level. The authors tested the intact state, followed by 9 postsurgical permutations of laminectomy and lateral mass fixation spanning C2 to C7. Constructs spanning a single level exerted no significant effects on immediate adjacent-segment motion. The addition of a second immobilized segment, however, created significant changes in flexion-extension range of motion at the supradjacent level (+164%). Regardless of construct length, resection of the terminal dorsal ligaments did not greatly affect adjacent-level motion except at C2-3 and C7-T1 (increasing by +794% and +607%, respectively). Dorsal ligamentous support was found to contribute significant stability to the C2-3 and C7-T1 segments only. Construct length was found to play a significant role when fixating two or more segments. The addition of a fused segment to support an undisrupted cervical level is not suggested by the present data, except potentially at C2-3 and C7-T1. The study findings emphasize the importance of the C2-3 segment and its dorsal support.

Characterizing Local Dynamic Stability of Lumbar Spine Sub-regions During Repetitive Trunk Flexion-Extension Movements.

Using a technique of tracking intersegmental spine kinematics via skin surface markers, this study aimed to estimate local dynamic spine stability across smaller sub-regions (or segments) of the lumbar spine while also considering the impact of an external pelvic constraint during repetitive movements. Sixteen participants (10 males) performed two trials [Free Motion (FM), Pelvis Constrained (PC)] each consisting of 65 repetitive trunk flexion-extension movements to assess dynamic spine stability using maximum Lyapunov exponents (LyE). First, results indicated that LyE obtained from analysis of 30 repetitive flexion-extension movements did not differ from those obtained from analysis of greater numbers of repetitive movements, which aligns with results from a previous study for the whole lumbar spine. Next, for both males and females, and FM and PC trials, the most caudal region of the lumbar spine behaved the most dynamically stable, while upper lumbar regions behaved the most dynamically unstable. Finally, females demonstrated greater lumbar and intersegmental stability (lower LyE) during PC trials compared to FM, while males demonstrated slightly decreased lumbar and intersegmental stability (higher LyE) during PC trials compared to FM; this resulted in PC trials, but not FM trials, being different between sexes. Altogether, these data show that dynamic stability of lumbar spine sub-regions may be related to the proximity of the motion segment to rigid skeletal structures, and that consideration is needed when deciding whether to constrain the pelvis during analyses of dynamic spine stability.

Incidence of Fusion Across Total Disc Replacement With Heterotopic Ossification: Are Ball and Socket Disk Replacements Fusing With and Without Radiographic Evidence.

This is a level III retrospective study. The authors aim to review the outcomes and complications of ball and socket total disk replacements (TDRs). TDR is a motion-preserving technique that closely reproduces physiologic kinematics of the cervical spine. However, heterotopic ossification and spontaneous fusion after implantation of the total cervical disk have been reported in several studies to decrease the range of motion postulated by in vitro and in vivo biomechanical studies. The medical records of 117 consecutive patients undergoing cervical TDR over a 5-year period with Mobi-C, Prodisc-C, Prestige LP, and Secure-C implants were followed. Outcomes assessed included Visual Analogue Scale neck and arm and Neck Disability Index scores. The radiographic assessment looked at heterotopic ossification leading to fusion and complication rates. Of the 117 patients that underwent TDR, 56% were male with the group's mean age being 46.2±10.3 years and body mass index of 18.9±13.6 kg/m. The longest follow-up was 5 years with Prodisc-C group, with overall fusion noted in 16% of patients. One patient was also noted to have fusion which was not seen radiographically but noted intraoperatively for adjacent segment disease. There has been no demonstrable radiographic fusion seen in the Prestige LP group, however, the follow-up has only been 12-24 months for this group. In this study, we have demonstrated radiographic fusion anterior to the ball and socket TDR as well as the uncovertebral joint. We postulate that with the use of a mobile core disk there is an increased potential for fusion leading to a nonfunctional disk replacement.

Kinematics of the thoracolumbar spine while cantering in horses fitted with a saddle of three different widths

Kinematics of the thoracolumbar spine while cantering in horses fitted with a saddle of three different widths

Multi-segment spine and hip kinematics in asymptomatic individuals during standardized return from forward bending versus functional box lifting

Clinically, sagittal spinal mobility is objectively assessed by forward bending range of motion (ROM) tests such as the modified-Schober test (m-Schober test). However, evidence comparing ROM during forward bending and daily activities is limited. In this study, a kinematic model including six spinal regions, pelvic/sacral and femur segment was used to characterize associations between m-Schober test and return from forward bending (RFB), and between RFB and lifting. No significant correlations were found between m-Schober test and lumbar ROM during RFB. Furthermore, we found significantly smaller ROM in all spinal regions during lifting compared to RFB, except in the upper thoracic spine, lumbosacral (L5/S1) and hip joints. However, we observed moderate to very strong correlations between the two movements tasks for all lumbar regions. Furthermore, cross-correlation between L5/S1 and lower lumbar spine regions showed no segmental redundancy of L5. These results suggest that an m-Schober test provides insufficient insight into lumbar mobility and that multi-segmental spine measurements should be introduced clinically. Furthermore, this study has demonstrated that RFB can be used as a reference for lumbar regions during lifting, with use of the current multi-segmental spine model and that the inclusion of L5/S1 provides more detailed information on lumbar kinematics.

The relationship between back pain, transverse spinal kinematics and the push-off power of the artificial foot system in transfemoral amputees

The relationship between back pain, transverse spinal kinematics and the push-off power of the artificial foot system in transfemoral amputees

Spinal and Pelvic Kinematics During Prolonged Rowing on an Ergometer vs. Indoor Tank Rowing.

Trompeter, K, Weerts, J, Fett, D, Firouzabadi, A, Heinrich, K, Schmidt, H, Brüggemann, GP, and Platen, P. Spinal and pelvic kinematics during prolonged rowing on an ergometer vs. indoor tank rowing. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2622-2628, 2021-This investigation aimed to compare spinopelvic kinematics during rowing on an ergometer vs. in a rowing tank and to evaluate changes with progressing fatigue. Spinal and pelvic kinematics of 8 competitive scull rowers (19.0 ± 2.1 years, 179.9 ± 7.6 cm, and 74.8 ± 8.1 kg) were collected during 1 hour of rowing on an ergometer and in a rowing tank using a routine training protocol. Kinematics of the upper thoracic spine, lower thoracic spine, lumbar spine, and pelvis were determined using an infrared camera system (Vicon, Oxford, United Kingdom). There was a greater lumbar range of motion (ROM) and less posterior pelvic tilt at the catch during rowing on the ergometer compared with in the rowing tank (p = 0.001-0.048), but no differences in pelvic ROM. In the rowing tank, the pelvic ROM increased over time (p = 0.002) and the ROM of the lower thoracic spine decreased (p = 0.002). In addition, there was an extended drive phase (when the rower applies pressure to the oar levering the boat forward) and an abbreviated recovery phase (setting up the rower's body for the next stroke) in the rowing tank (p = 0.032). Different rowing training methods lead to differences in spinopelvic kinematics, which may lead to substantially different spinal loading situations. Greater pelvic rotation and lesser lumbar ROM are considered ideal; therefore, the present results indicate that rowing in the rowing tank might facilitate the maintenance of this targeted spinopelvic posture, which might help protect the lower back. Rowers, coaches, and researchers should consider the differences between rowing training methods, especially when giving training recommendations.