Growth Of Spinach Research Articles

Effect of Biostimulator Chlorella fusca on Improving Growth and Qualities of Chinese Chives and Spinach in Organic Farm.

This study was conducted to investigate the efficacy of freshwater alga, Chlorella fusca on the improvement of growth and qualities in organic spinach and Chinese chives farm. The average height of Chinese chives treated with the chlorella was 3.7 cm smaller than that of the untreated. The leaf width and fresh weight of Chinese chives treated with the chlorella was 0.5 mm wider and 30.3 g heavier than that of the untreated. The commercialization and yield of Chinese chives treated with the chlorella was 11.9% and 18.3%, respectively higher than that of the untreated. Also, the disease severity of gray mold disease of Chinese chives treated with the chlorella was reduced by more than 24.2% when compared with the untreated. The thickness and number of spinach leaves treated with chlorella was 27.9% and 41.8%, respectively higher than that of the untreated. The fresh weight and yield of the spinach treated with the chlorella was 63.6% and 31.5%, respectively higher than that of the untreated. Moreover, the mineral content of K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, and Mn were recorded higher in the spinach treated with chlorella compared with that of untreated. The results indicated that the freshwater alga, Chlorella fusca is efficient and economical biostimulant in improving plant growth and quality of Chinese chives and spinach in organic farm.

The effect of biochars application on reducing the toxic effects of nickel and growth indices of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) in a calcareous soil.

Nowadays, production of biochar from agricultural wastes and its use for the amelioration of contaminated soils with heavy metals is increasing to reduce their negative effects on the growth of various plants. A factorial greenhouse experiment as a completely randomized design with three replications was performed to study the effect of different biochars on the spinach growth in a calcareous soil with different levels of nickel (Ni). The first factor consisted of biochars (control (CL), licorice root pulp (LRB), and rice husk (RHB) prepared at two pyrolysis temperatures (350°C and 550°C), each at 2.5% (w/w)), and the second factor included Ni application levels (0 (N0), 150 (N1), and 300 (N2) mgkg-1 soil). Shoot dry weight (15.0%), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a (46.5%), b (39.5%), carotenoids (52.0%)), and micronutrients uptake (iron (51.8%), manganese (66.4%), copper (62.9%), and zinc (47.1%)) were decreased by increasing the Ni levels from N0 to N2. The activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase (36.3%) and guaiacol peroxidase (29.3%)) and Ni uptake were increased by the Ni application levels. The biochar treatments (RHB350, RHB550, and LRB550) increased shoot dry weight of spinach through the reduction of Ni uptake, activity of antioxidant enzymes and enhancement of the micronutrients absorption. In general, the effect of the biochars produced at 550°C on the reduction of Ni uptake and the increase in plant growth were better than the biochars produced at 350°C. Finally, it could be concluded that the RHB550 is more suitable for reducing the Ni toxicity and improving the growth indices of the spinach.

The effects of ploy (γ-glutamic acid) on spinach productivity and nitrogen use efficiency in North-West China

Recently, with the problem of low utilization rate of nitrogen fertilizers in farmland, agriculture practices have shifted towards the development of environmentally friendly nitrogen fertilizers. Ploy (γ-glutamic acid) is a new plant growth regulator with characteristics of water and fertilizer conservation. In this study, pot experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of ploy (γ-PGA) on the yield, nitrogen use efficiency and soil aggregate of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). The results indicated that γ-PGA (0.1%) increased plant growth (as measured by fresh and dry plant weight). However, increasing γ-PGA significantly decreased spinach quality parameters. The nitrogen utilization and use efficiency were increased with increasing γ-PGA. Ploy was stronger in water coagulation which effectively increased soil porosity and improved soil structure. The results suggest that 0.1% of γ-PGA has positive effects on spinach growth.

Growth and nutrient level of water spinach (Ipomoea aquaticaForssk.) in response to LED light quality in a plant factory

Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) is widely cultured as an edible green leafy vegetable in Asian countries. Its leaves contain adequate quantities of vitamins, minerals, plant fiber, amino acids, and antioxidant components. It has also been used as a traditional medicine for treating swelling, food poisoning, and antioxidant-related disorders. A plant factory with an artificial lighting system as a fully environment controllable facility has been used for year-round high quantity and quality production of leafy vegetables, herbs, and medicinal plants. This study aimed to investigate the growth and nutrient level in water spinach plants as affected by different LED light qualities in the plant factory. Plants were grown under six light conditions (white, white with far red, blue, red, blue+red, and blue+red with far red), at a PPFD of 200 µmol m(-2) s(-1) for 3 weeks after transplanting. The highest shoot weight, root biomass production, total leaf area, side-shoot development, and ascorbic acid content in shoot were observed in blue light treatment. Different light qualities influenced biomass distributions in plant leaf and stem. Red light increased plant stem length and stem dry mass with a decrease in leaf dry mass. Higher blue ratio (>50%) lights enhanced antioxidant activity in plant shoots, mainly due to a significant increase in stem rather than in leaves.

KAJIAN LIMBAH CANGKANG KERANG SEBAGAI ALTERNATIF BAHAN AMELIORAN DI LAHAN GAMBUT

Peat soil has a high acidity levels, causing low fertility rate, but can be lowered by amelioration. Ameliorant materials that are widely used today are dolomite and limestone which contains calcium carbonate (CaCO3). All material containing Ca compounds can be used as ameliorant material to neutralize the soil acidity that basically adding Ca and lower Al. Waste shells also have the main ingredients in Ca compounds in the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) at higher levels when compared limestone, egg shells and other materials, seen from the level of violence kerang.The aim of this research to assess the utilization of waste shells as an alternative ameliorant material on peatland. Research conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Teuku Umar, Meulaboh in June 2014 to December 2014. Analysis of the chemical constituents shells held in Baristand Industry Banda Aceh, parameters observed were peat soil pH before and after being given ameliorant waste shells, Ca compound, Na, P, and Mg and micro nutrients (Fe, Cu, Ni, B, Zn and Si) in 100 grams of waste shells. This study was followed by the application of waste shells on spinach crops as an indicator of plant growth and production parameters were observed. The result of this research shows that the content of Ca as a constituent CaCO3 in mussel shells higher than dolomite. Giving flour shells can raise the pH soils. The giving of 1.9 ton ha-1 shell clams flour showed the growth and yield of spinach were not significantly different from shell clams flour showed or dolomite flour at a dose of 3.8 ton ha-1. Shell clams flour can be used as an alternative material ameliorant replacement dolomite. Keywords: ameliorant, peat, Shells clams, spinach

Emission of NH3 and N2O from Spinach Field Treated with Different Fertilizers

Agricultural management techniques such as fertilizer or manure application have substantial influence on NH3 and N2O emissions and, by understanding this influence, management strategies can be developed to reduce them. An experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at Hunan Agricultural University during 2012 to 2013, to investigate effects of different fertilizers on NH3 and N2O emissions. The treatments included control without fertilizer (CK), swine composting fertilizer (SC), stored swine manure fertilizer (SS), and chemical fertilizer (FC). The fluxes of NH3 and N2O were collected by venting method and static-chamber method, respectively. The results showed that during the spinach growth season, compared with FC, loss of both NH3 and N2O for SC were reduced by 52.9% and 95.12%, respectively(P<0.01). However, loss of NH3 for SS increased by 24.8%, and loss of N2O reduced by 48.8% compared with FC. Loss rate of NH3 were SS (10.97%) > FC (4.19%) > SC(2.74%), and emission coefficient for N2O were FC(4.50%) > SC(2.21%) > SS(0.60%). Yield and utilization of nitrogen for SC were reduced by 19.61% and 13.20% compared with FC, respectively, but not significantly; and significantly reduced by 27.9% and 40.0% compared with SS, respectively. Loss of gases (NH3 and N2O) for SC were 1.83%, which was the lowest, while utilization of nitrogen for SC was 13.20%, similar with FC. Greenhouse temperature was not the critical factor during the spinach planting in winter, but soil water was. Therefore, optimizing manure management could reduce ammonia volatilization and N2O emission loss without decreasing vegetables production, and the present data indicated that SC would be optimal for better yields with reduced ammonia volatilization and N2O emission loss.

Phytobioremediation of cadmium-contaminated soil using combination of Ipomoea reptans Poir and Trichoderma sp. and its effect on spinach growth and yield

This research aimed to study the potential role of Ipomoea reptans and Trichoderma sp. on the absorption of cadmium from cadmium-contaminated soil and its effect on and growth rate and yield of spinach. The research was arranged in a completely randomized blok design with two factors. The first factor was the density of Ipomoea reptans consisting of 0, 2, and 4 plants/polybag. The second factor was the dosage of Trichoderma sp. consisting of 0, 50 and 100% dose of Trichoderma sp . Results of the research showed that Ipomoea reptans with 2 plants/polybag effectively reduced Cd to 66.31% and increased the growth of spinach by 20% on plant height, shoot dry weight of spinach by 35%. Application of 100% dose of Trichoderma sp. effectively reduced Cd by 63.81% and increased spinach plant growth by 18% on plant height and increased shoot dry weight of spinach by 23%). There were interactions of phytoremediator of 2 Ipomoea reptans plants/polybag with bioremediator of 50% Trichoderma sp. that effectively reduced Cd to 71.19% and improved 43% of plant height and leaf number, 31% of leaf area, and 63% of shoot dry weight of spinach plant compared with plants without application of Ipomoea reptans and Trichoderma sp.

Photosynthetic apparatus plays a central role in photosensitive physiological acclimations affecting spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) growth in response to blue and red photon flux ratios

Relative abundance of blue (B) and red (R) photons in the incident light plays a major role in regulating the morphology and physiology of plants. Many studies have been carried out to determine the R:B photon flux ratio (PFR) required for eliciting desired traits in various plant species. However, studies investigating the impact of R:B PFR on the underlying metabolic events and their mutual interactions are limited. In the present study, spinach (Spinacia oleracea L. cv. All Green) plants were raised in a plant growth chamber under R:B PFRs of 100R:0B, 75R:25B, 50R:50B, 25R:75B and 0R:100B provided by customized light-emitting diode (LED) panels. Data related to plant growth, status of photosynthetic apparatus, nitrogen metabolism, metabolite profile, oxidative stress and antioxidant defense response were collected. A putative mechanistic concept highlighting the interplay between photosynthesis, C- and N-assimilation and oxidative stress response in regulating plant growth under changing R:B PFR has been presented. Steady growth under B and R combined treatments was associated with high chlorophyll content, PSII quantum yield (Fv/Fm, Fv/Fo, ΦPSII) and vitality index (RFd) along with proper C- and N-assimilation. Reduction in non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and oxidative stress was also observed under 25R:75B to 75R:25B light treatments. Subdued photosynthetic activity under deficiency of B waveband resulted in arrested growth due to suboptimal C- and N-assimilation. Monochromatic B lighting caused damage to the photosynthetic apparatus due to increased photooxidation. Presence of B photons was favorable for eliciting enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense responses. However, the antioxidant machinery was unable to ameliorate the excessive oxidative damage under 0R:100B treatment resulting in suboptimal plant growth. Integrity and proper functionality of the photosynthetic apparatus under B and R combined light quality treatments was found to play a pivotal role in coordinating the non-photosynthetic light-sensitive metabolic processes in response to changing R:B PFR for ensuring proper plant growth.

Modelling plant yield and quality response of fresh-market spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) to mineral nitrogen availability in the root zone

Spinach is one of the most important green-leafy vegetables, consumed worldwide, and its intake is beneficial for human beings. In this crop, produce yield and quality are closely related to plant nitrogen (N) nutrition. A precise supply of N is also essential for high environmental and economic sustainability. Main aims of the work were: i) to establish relationships between produce yield or quality and mineral N availability in the root zone; and ii) to define an optimal mineral N level to be maintained in the root zone for spinach. Eight experiments were carried out during a four-year-long period under typical Mediterranean climate conditions. Different amounts of N fertilisers were supplied leading to twenty different levels of mineral N in the root zone. Experimental measurements included climate parameters, plant growth, tissue and soil analyses, produce yield and quality indicators. A segmented linear model significantly represented the relationship between crop yield (1.7 to 21.7 t ha–1) and soil mineral N concentration (7.6 to 41.0 mg kg–1). Basing on this model, an optimal mineral N threshold was fixed at 23.4 mg kg–1. Above this threshold, crop yield did not show any significant variations as well as tissue characteristics and produce quality. Plants grown under suboptimal N levels showed reduction in growth, tissue mineral (nutrients) content, and SPAD index. The proposed models could be implemented in fertilisation protocols for the optimization of N supply and the estimation of spinach growth and yield.

Assessment effect of macronutrients on growth and phytochemical contents of Iranian native spinach

Overmuch usage of chemicals in crops, especially in leafy vegetables, caused people exposed to health and environmental risks. In Iran, spinach used as a winter vegetable that believed has high Iron and is useful for anemia. The objective of the experiment was determining optimum usage of each macronutrients for obtaining safe with maximum growth and yield in order to extension among farmers. Treatments were chemical fertilizers including ammonium sulfate, super phosphate triple and potassium sulfate at 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg/h against control in a randomized complete block design. Results showed that nitrogen caused elevation of fresh and dry weight in spinach as the maximum obtained in 200 kg/h ammonium sulfate. Results obtained from effect of phosphorus showed that super phosphate increased fresh and dry weight of spinach; but potassium sulfate had no effect on its growth and yield. Analysis of variance on cross effect of data showed significant differences in fresh and dry weight, number of leaves, chlorophyll content and nitrate, but no in length and wide of leaves.

Plant growth, phytochemical accumulation and antioxidant activity of substrate-grown spinach

Spinach production in soilless cultivation systems, mainly in substrate, transplanted with soil blocks and drip-irrigation is increasing worldwide. However, spinach establishment with soil blocks, with several seedlings per block compared with traditional planting methods, may affect light interception by plant canopy, wetting and salt patterns in root medium and therefore the plant growth and functional value of spinach. The effects of soil block number (plant density) and emitters spacing on plant growth, nitrate, proline and total phenols content and antioxidant activity were evaluated in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L). Five seedlings per soil block were transplanted to Styrofoam boxes filled with the substrate and grown during winter in an unheated greenhouse. Four treatments were carried out with two soil block numbers [8 (160 plants/m2) and 14 (280 plants/m2) soil blocks per Styrofoam box] and two emitter spacing [emitters spaced every 25 and 12.5 cm, respectively, with 4 and 8 emitters per Styrofoam box]. Neither plant density nor emitter spacing had any effect on shoot dry weight. Fresh yield increased as planting density and the number of emitters per Styrofoam box increased. The yield in Styrofoam boxes with 160 plants/m2 and 8 emitters (3.85 kg m−2) was ≈31 % lower than that obtained in treatment with 280 plants/m2 and 8 emitters (5.09 kg m−2). However, the leaf blade of the latter treatment presented a higher content of phenols and proline and greater antioxidant activity (FRAP and DPPH) as well as lower content of nitrate and lesser PDH activity. Decrease of space between emitters reduced the leaf blade nitrate concentration of spinach grown in a greenhouse during the winter. Leaf blade antioxidant activity (FRAP) decreased as planting density increased.

Optimization of culture conditions for mass production and bio-formulation of Trichoderma using response surface methodology.

Use of agro-waste for production of value added products is a good alternative for developing low-cost carriers for formulation of Trichoderma-based bio-products. It provides avenues for safe utilization of wastes, while reducing cost and environment pollution load of waste disposal. The present study was undertaken to find suitable agro-waste for economical and higher mass production of Trichoderma lixii TvR1 under solid-state fermentation, optimizing culture conditions using mathematical model and assessing effect of formulated bio-product on growth of Spinach (Spinacia oleracea). Among various agro-wastes screened, sugarcane bagasse was observed to support maximum growth (20.08 × 107spores/g) of T. lixii TvR1 which was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than the others. The Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to optimize culture conditions using optimal point prediction analysis which predicted that maximum spore production of T. lixii TvR1 (19.1245 × 107spores/g) will be obtained at 30°C and 68.87% of moisture content after 31 days of incubation. Amendment of formulated bio-product of T. lixii TvR1 in soil at concentration 15% w/w promoted biomass, photosynthetic pigments, and protein content of spinach (significant at p ≤ 0.05). After 6 weeks of sowing the shoot length, root length, and photosynthetic pigments of plants irrigated daily and on alternate days were reported to be increased by 66.97, 185.03, and 82.80%; and 56.56, 71.36, and 74.64%, respectively; over the no amendment.

Effects of Poultry-Litter Biochar on Soil Properties and Growth of Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.)

Poultry-litter biochars (PLBs), which were prepared at two pyrolytic temperatures, were applied to the soils of croplands with four consecutive harvests of water spinach to assess the effects of PLBs on the soil properties and the growth of water spinach. The results show that PLB amendment resulted in an increase of soil pH. The electrical conductivity values, and the concentrations of extractable inorganic nitrogen, exchangeable potassium, and available phosphorus in the soils drastically increased in the 0.5% and 1% biochar-amended soils. However, most of the significant changes due to PLB amendment disappeared after four consecutive harvests of water spinach. The growth of water spinach was enhanced in the soils amended with PLBs, especially the one prepared at 350 °C. Nonetheless, the application of 1% PLBs to the soil resulted in an imbalance between calcium and magnesium in water spinach.

Effect of inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and blanching on the bioaccessibility of heavy metals in water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.)

A plant's tolerance to heavy metals (HMs) and its detoxification mechanisms are associated with the subcellular distribution of HMs and their chemical forms. In this study, water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.) was grown in two soils contaminated with a single HM (cadmium, Cd) or combined HMs (Cd and nickel, Ni). Inoculation of arbuscular mycorrizal fungi (AMF) was conducted to increase the accumulation of phosphorus (P) in plants. One major exception was to decrease the migration and accumulation of HMs in edible parts by the formation of P-HM complexes. The effects of blanching and simulated digestion on bioaccessibility were also assessed. The experimental results showed that the water spinach species used in this study had a high capacity to accumulate HMs. AMF treatment improved water spinach growth and decreased the accumulation of Ni but not that of Cd. Soluble and inorganic Cd and Ni were the major subcellular fractions and chemical forms in water spinach; these two HMs also exhibited higher migration capacities in comparison to chromium (Cr). Relative to raw tissues, 45–84% of Cd, Cr, and Ni were leached after blanching. Approximately 32–55%, 16–50%, and 27–40% of Cd, Cr, and Ni, respectively, were bioaccessible and could be metabolized by in vitro digestive fluids.

Impact of chlorine dioxide disinfection of irrigation water on the epiphytic bacterial community of baby spinach and underlying soil.

The contamination of pathogenic bacteria through irrigation water is a recognized risk factor for fresh produce. Irrigation water disinfection is an intervention strategy that could be applied to reduce the probability of microbiological contamination of crops. Disinfection treatments should be applied ensuring minimum effective doses, which are efficient in inhibiting the microbial contamination while avoiding formation and accumulation of chemical residues. Among disinfection technologies available for growers, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) represents, after sodium hypochlorite, an alternative disinfection treatment, which is commercially applied by growers in the USA and Spain. However, in most of the cases, the suitability of this treatment has been tested against pathogenic bacteria and low attention have been given to the impact of chemical residues on the bacterial community of the vegetable tissue. The aim of this study was to (i) to evaluate the continual application of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as a water disinfection treatment of irrigation water during baby spinach growth in commercial production open fields, and (ii) to determine the subsequent impact of these treatments on the bacterial communities in water, soil, and baby spinach. To gain insight into the changes in the bacterial community elicited by ClO2, samples of treated and untreated irrigation water as well as the irrigated soil and baby spinach were analyzed using Miseq® Illumina sequencing platform. Next generation sequencing and multivariate statistical analysis revealed that ClO2 treatment of irrigation water did not affect the diversity of the bacterial community of water, soil and crop, but significant differences were observed in the relative abundance of specific bacterial genera. This demonstrates the different susceptibility of the bacteria genera to the ClO2 treatment. Based on the obtained results it can be concluded that the phyllosphere bacterial community of baby spinach was more influenced by the soil bacteria community rather than that of irrigation water. In the case of baby spinach, the use of low residual ClO2 concentrations (approx. 0.25 mg/L) to treat irrigation water decreased the relative abundance of Pseudomonaceae (2.28-fold) and Enterobacteriaceae (2.5-fold) when comparing treated versus untreated baby spinach. Members of these two bacterial families are responsible for food spoilage and foodborne illnesses. Therefore, a reduction of these bacterial families might be beneficial for the crop and for food safety. In general it can be concluded that the constant application of ClO2 as a disinfection treatment for irrigation water only caused changes in two bacterial families of the baby spinach and soil microbiota, without affecting the major phyla and classes. The significance of these changes in the bacterial community should be further evaluated.

Different water and nitrogen fertilizer rates effects on growth and development of spinach

ABSTRACTWater and nitrogen (N) nutrition are two key factors affecting nutrient absorption growth and biomass production of vegetables. However, less information is available to the interaction between water utilization and nitrogen use efficiency in vegetable production. In this study, a combination of three water levels and three nitrogen fertilizer rates was applied to optimize water and nitrogen application in field experiments. Plant traits, biomass production, and allocation were determined. The fresh and dry weight of leaf, stem, and root significantly decreased when irrigation water was short. Total aboveground biomass decreased in response to deficit irrigation. Leaf chlorophyll concentrations decreased when nitrogen fertilizer reduced. The leaf area was highest when spinach was grown under 170 kg ha−1 of nitrogen fertilizer and 70–80% of field capacity. These results suggested that spinach could be planted with good growth and quality by implementing effective water and nitrogen managements.

Pertumbuhan dan produksi bayam merah (Amaranthus tricolor L.) dengan pemberian pupuk kandang dan giberelin

The research aimed to study the growth and yield of red spinach as affected by manures and giberelin. This research used monofactor experiment with Completely Randomized Design consist of 7 treatments and 3 replications. The treatments were T0 (control), T1 (GA3 100 ppm and cow manure 6,250 kg / ha), T2 (GA3 200 ppm and cow manure 12,500 kg / ha), T3 (GA3 300 ppm and cow manure 18,750 kg / ha), T4 (GA3 100 ppm and goat manure 3,750 kg / ha), T5 (GA3 200 ppm and goat manure 7,500 kg / ha), T6 (GA3 300 ppm and goat manure 11.250 kg / ha). Observed parameters were plant height, leaf number, leaf area, wet weight and dry weight. The data were processed by analysis of variance and further test with Duncan Multiple Range Test and Contrast Test. The best plant height growth was in the treatment of 18,750 kg / ha of cow manure and 300 ppm gibberellin resulted plant height of 21.11 cm. The highest number of leaves in the treatment of 11,250 kg / ha of goat manure and 300 ppm gibberellin resulted 21.44 leaves. Leaf area (528.79 cm2), fresh weight (68,50 g), and best dry weight (26.97 g) were achieved at 7,500 kg / ha goat manure treatment and 200 ppm giberelin. It was concluded that the application of manure and gibberellin increased plant growth (plant height, leaf number, leaf area), and crop production (fresh weight and dry weight) of red spinach. The combination of goat manure and giberelin was better than cow manure on all parameters. Goat manure of 7,500 kg / ha and 200 ppm gibberellin increased growth and production of red spinach on leaf area parameters, fresh weight, and dry weight. Keywords : red spinach, manure, gibberellin

Effect of Nitrogen Rates on Growth and Quality of Water Spinach (Ipomea aquatica)

Effect of Nitrogen Rates on Growth and Quality of Water Spinach (Ipomea aquatica)

Cattle manure biochar potential for ameliorating soil physical characteristics and spinach response under drought

ABSTRACTDrought and low amounts of organic matter are two main constraints in arid and semiarid regions and their adverse effects on soils and plants can be alleviated by biochar (B). Therefore, the influence of 0 (0B), 1.25 (1.25B), 2.5 (2.5B) and 5% (5B) cattle-manure biochar on the growth and physiological traits of spinach and physical characteristics of postharvest soil under field capacity (FC), 0.7FC and 0.55FC conditions was evaluated. Drought decreased stomatal conductance (SC), water use efficiency (WUE), shoot dry matter yield (SDMY), soil water repellency (WR) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) by 13–45%, 3–17%, 27–51%, 48–60% and 26–36%, respectively. Whereas, all B treatments increased SC, Ks and total porosity by 11–63%, 82–221% and 2–12%, respectively. Application of 1.25B increased SDMY and WUE, whereas higher B levels were ineffective, i.e. 2.5B did not significantly affect the measured parameters and 5B reduced them. At all B levels, drought reduced SDMY. However, the lowest decrease in SDMY was observed by 1.25B. Despite their positive influence on soil’s physical quality, high B levels induced excessive salinity. Therefore, a low B level (1.25B) may be recommended since it provides positive impacts on the plant’s growth and yield while mitigating the adverse effects of drought.

Elemental Relationships and Growth and Development of Spinach Grown with Sewage Sludge

ABSTRACTA pot experiment with spinach (Spinacia oleraceae L. Fam.: Chenopodiaceae) was conducted aiming to investigate the effect of the addition of sewage sludge (SS) on soil substrate, the growth of spinach, and the plant interactions of CaxCd and ZnxCd. There were six substrates obtained by mixing soil and sludge in different proportions by volume (20:1, 10:1, 6.7:1, 5.0:1, 4.0:1, 3.3:1) and a control (only soil). The highest biomass was achieved in treatments 20:1 and 10:1. There was not a linear increase due to toxicity when SS was added in higher proportions. Sludge improved soil fertility by increasing organic matter and total N. Furthermore, in all plant parts of spinach, the Ca and Zn contents were synergistically interrelated with the Cd content, facilitating Cd uptake. The use of sewage sludge as soil amendment is not applicable on agricultural land due to the accumulation of Cd in plant.