Spent Mushroom Waste Research Articles

Micropollutants (ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin) remediation from wastewater through laccase derived from spent mushroom waste: Fate, toxicity, and degradation

Fluoroquinolone antibiotics frequently found in environmental matrices (wastewater treatment plants, hospital wastewater, industrial wastewater and surface wastewater) causes potential threat to the environment. Enzymatic treatment for degradation of antibiotics from environmental matrices is a green and sustainable approach. Focusing on this, this study aimed to degrade two frequently found fluroquinolone emergent pollutants, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin from wastewater. The trinuclear cluster of copper ions present in laccase has the ability to effectively remove organic micropollutants (OMPs). The uniqueness of this study is that it utilizes laccase enzyme extracted from spent mushroom waste (SMW) of P. florida for degradation of ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin and to achieve highest degradation efficiency various parameters were tweaked such as pH (3–6), temperature (30 °C and 50 °C), and ABTS (0.05, 0.6, and 1 mM) concentration. The results showed that the most effective degradation of ciprofloxacin (86.12–75.94%) and norfloxacin (83.27–65.94%) was achieved in 3 h at pH 4.5, temperature 30 °C, and 2,2′-azino-bis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 0.05 mM concentration. Nevertheless, achieving degradation at 50 °C for both antibiotics, indicates thermostability nature of laccase (P. florida). Further, the fate of transformed products obtained from laccase mediated degradation was confirmed by liquid chromatography (LC-MS). Both the antibiotics undergo decarboxylation, depiperylyzation, dealkylation and defluorination as a result of laccase-mediated bond breakage. Anti-microbial activity of the biodegraded products was monitored by residual anti-bacterial toxicity test (E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus). The biodegraded products were found to be non-toxic and resulted in the growth of E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus, as determined by the agar-diffusion method. Moreover, the storage stability of laccase was determined for 28-day duration at varying pH (3–10) and temperature (4–50 °C). The maximum storage stability was obtained at pH 4.5 and temperature 30 °C. Therefore, utilizing SMW for the degradation of OMPs from wastewater not only benefits in degradation but also reuses SMW agro waste, shedding light on agro waste management. Thus, SMW is a one-pot solution for both OMPs biodegradation and circularity in the economy.

Efficiency of spent mushroom (Agaricus Bisporus) waste biomass for the biosorption of basic fuchsin dye from aqueous solution

The dumping of wastewater containing the dyes is harmful to the health of aquatic living beings. The colour in water bodies reduces the penetration of light and thereby reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) of water bodies. The decreased value of DO is also harmful to aquatic organism. Therefore treatment of wastewater containing dyes becomes essential. Mushrooms have proven to be highly efficient and economical for removing pollutants through bioabsorption. Therefore, in the present study an attempt has been made to study the efficiency of Spent Mushroom Waste (SMW) viz. Agaricus bisporus as biosorbent for the biosorption of Basic Fuchsin Dye (BFD) from aqueous solution. The effects of certain factors such as the dose of adsorbent, temperature, exposure time, and pH were studied on the dye degradation by a given biomass of SMW. The results of the present study revealed that the optimum value of temperature, contact time, adsorbent dose, pH, was 7, 20 minutes, 20 mg, and 30˚C respectively. The biosorption efficiency of the used SMW ranged from good to excellent. The results of the present study revealed that the SMW of Agaricus bisporus is an economically and environmentally sound adsorbent and can be used for the degradation of dyes from water based solutions. Further investigation is required to enhance the adsorption rate of SMW of Agaricus bisporus.

Optimization of laccase enzyme extraction from spent mushroom waste of Pleurotus florida through ANN-PSO modeling: An ecofriendly and economical approach

The cardinal focus of this study is to optimize the best reaction conditions for maximizing laccase activity from spent mushroom waste (SMW) of Pleurotus florida. Optimization process parameters were studied by the modeling techniques, artificial neural networking (ANN) embedded in particle swarm optimization (PSO), and response surface model (RSM). The best topology of ANN-PSO architecture was obtained on 4-10-1. The R2, IOA, MSE, and MAE values of the ANN model were obtained as 0.98785, 0.9939, 0.0023, and 0.0251 while, that of the RSM model were obtained as 0.74290, 0.9210, 0.0244, and 0.1110 respectively. The higher values of R2, IOA, and lower values of MSE and MAE of the ANN-PSO model depict that ANN-PSO outperformed compared to RSM and also verified the effectiveness of the ANN-PSO model. The ANN-PSO model performance demonstrates the robustness of the technique in optimizing laccase activity in SMW of P. florida. The optimization results revealed that pH 4.5, time 3 h, solid: solution ratio 1:5, and ABTS concentration of 1 mM was optimal for achieving maximum laccase activity at temperature 30 °C. The enzymatic activity of crude laccase enzyme was obtained as 1.185 U ml−1 without loss of enzyme activity. Additionally, crude laccase enzyme was 1.74 fold partially purified, and 83.54% of the enzyme was yielded. Out of all the independent process variables, ABTS and pH had an influence on laccase activity. Therefore, we anticipate that the findings of this investigation will reduce the ambiguity in maximizing laccase activity and ease the screening process. This study also highlights the comparative cost evaluation of crude laccase enzyme extracted from P. florida and commercial enzymes. There is a great potential for the utilization of the laccase enzyme extracted from SMW and using it for the degradation of recalcitrant micropollutants. Thus, SMW promises a cost-effective and sustainable approach leading towards circular economy.

The Effect of Application Spent Mushroom Waste on Cd-Polluted Soil

The main source of cadmium (Cd) accumulates in humans is through the food chain processes when the living things uptake Cd from the soils. In this paper, spent mushroom waste (SMW) was used as an approach to reduce the Cd contamination in the growth medium. Thus, different percentages of SMW were mixed on Cd-polluted soil (20000 ppm per soil volume 1000 cm3) as growth medium: T0 (0%), T1 (5%), T2 (10%), T3 (15%), and T4 (20%) of SMW and these treatments were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) along with three replications. The growth mediums were planted with Brazilian spinach to measure the uptake of Cd. There is no significance among the treatments for the availability of Cd in the soil after 51 days of planting and increasing the percentage of SMW was significantly reduce the amount of Cd uptake by the plant. The application of the SMW also resulted in a positive effect on the plant growth performance as there is a significant difference between the treated and untreated soil with SMW. However, the high percentage of SMW shows a reduction of growth parameters. This research establishes the potential of SMW in reducing the Cd in soil and subsequently reducing the risk of Cd reaching humans.

Spent waste from edible mushrooms offers innovative strategies for the remediation of persistent organic micropollutants: A review

Urgent and innovative strategies for removal of persistent organic micropollutants (OMPs) in soil, groundwater, and surface water are the need of the hour. OMPs detected in contaminated soils and effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are categorized as environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs), and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), their admixture could cause serious ecological issues to the non-target species. As complete eradication of OMPs is not possible with the extant conventional WWTPs technology, the inordinate and reckless application of OMPs negatively impacts environmental regenerative and resilience capacity. Therefore, the cardinal focus of this review is the bioremediation of persistent OMPs through efficient application of an agro-waste, i.e. spent mushroom waste (SMW). This innovative, green, long-term strategy embedded in the circular economy, based on state of the art information is comprehensively assessed in this paper. SMW accrues ligninolytic enzymes such as laccase and peroxidase, with efficient mechanism to facilitate biodegradation of recalcitrant organic pollutants. It is vital in this context that future research should address immobilization of such enzymes to overcome quantitative and qualitative issues obstructing their widespread use in biodegradation. Therefore, dual benefit is gained from cultivating critical cash crops like mushrooms to meet the escalating demand for food resources and to aid in biodegradation. Hence, mushroom cultivation has positive environmental, social, and economic implications in developing countries like India.

The utilization of agro-industrial waste for soil amendment and liquid biofertilizer mixed bacterial antagonist in eggplant production

This research aimed to improve soil fertility with soil amendment, prepared from agro-industrial waste, and application of antagonistic bacteria for controlling bacterial wilt disease. The experiments were tested on sandy-to-sandy loam soil with low organic matter and nutrients for planting eggplants. Besides the soil improvement with spent mushroom waste and mango peel mixed kernel, the results showed that soil pH, soil organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium increased as available levels. Also, two species of bacterial antagonist named Bacillus subtilis and B. amyloliquifaciens were cultured and mixed in liquid biofertilizer. It was spiked for soil preparation before planting and during crop growth every week, which was affected by eggplant survival from bacterial wilt by 100% and 97% in plot and field-tested, respectively. The results from testing on sandy loam with the use of liquid biofertilizer three times/week showed that Ralstonia solanacearum in soil suppressed to the reduction of 1,000-10,000 times. The yield increased by 25.9%. The optimum harvesting time was 12-15 days of fruit growth with the antioxidant activity. Finally, this study has excellent potential to be extended for farmers who organically grown.

Application of phospho-feather compost as a soilless culture medium for the production of two consecutive melon harvests without additional fertilization

Microbial-inoculated phospho-feather compost (PIFRM) was manufactured by inoculating Arthrobacter ureafaciens K10 and Streptomyces sp. CP3 into compost composed of spent mushroom waste (SMW), duck feathers (DF), pitaya pruning waste (PPW) and rock phosphate. PIFRM was slightly acidic; carbon to nitrogen ratio was 11.1; electric conductivity (EC) (1:10) was 5.5 dS m−1; bulk density (BD) was 0.3 g cm−3, and germination index (GI) was 164.7%. Seven culture media: PIFRM, coconut fiber (CF), coconut fiber mixed with PIFRM in a 1:1 volume ratio (CF-PIFRM 1:1), coconut fiber mixed with PIFRM in a 3:1 volume ratio (CF-PIFRM 3:1), peat (P), peat mixed with PIFRM in a 1:1 volume ratio (P-PIFRM 1:1) and peat mixed with PIFRM in a 3:1 volume ratio (P-PIFRM 3:1) were evaluated for the production of two melon harvests without additional fertilization. The highest fruit weight and total soluble solids (TSS) obtained in the first cultivation cycle was from treatment with CF-PIFRM 1:1. Fruit weight significantly decreased in treatment with CF-PIFRM 3:1, due to high potassium to calcium ratio (7.1) in the medium. In the second cultivation cycle, commercially viable fruit was only produced in planted PIFRM. PIFRM possessed stability and long-lasting fertility, and can be used as culture medium or medium component to decrease fertilizer input and increase melon fruit quality.

Facile fabrication of Mg-Fe-biochar adsorbent derived from spent mushroom waste for phosphate removal

Excessive phosphate in water bodies causes eutrophication, which can be harmful to human and animal health. This study aimed to fabricate biochar adsorbent based on Mg-Fe modified spent mushroom waste for removing phosphate from aqueous solutions. Various characterization tools such as scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were applied to determine the surface structure and properties of biochar from spent mushroom waste (BSMW) and biochar from Mg-Fe modified spent mushroom waste (Mg-Fe@BSMW). The result confirmed that Mg and Fe were successfully embedded into the biochar matrix. Mg-Fe@BSMW showed an excellent adsorption capacity for phosphate (247 mg g−1). Kinetic and isotherm analyses revealed that the current study's data fitted well with the pseudo-second-order model and the Langmuir model. A thermodynamic study indicated that phosphate removal was exothermic and spontaneous. Our study indicated that Mg-Fe@BSMW was a potential adsorbent with high efficiency, and excellent reusability for phosphate removal.

Adsorptive removal of anionic dyes from aqueous solutions using spent mushroom waste

The removal of hazardous dyes has become a major economic and health concern to treat wastewater. In this study, efficient, low-cost, and eco-friendly spent mushroom waste (SMW) showed great potential for removing the anionic dyes, namely Direct Red 5B (DR5B), Direct Black 22 (DB22), Direct Black 71 (DB71), and Reactive Black 5 (RB5). The mechanisms of adsorption could be controlled by both physical and chemical adsorption. Scanning electron microscope analysis showed that SMW surface is porous and irregular. The kinetic study could be described well with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, whereas the best representation of the equilibrium isotherm is the Langmuir model. The maximum adsorption capacities of SMW were found to be 18 mg g−1 for DR5B, 15.46 mg g−1 for DB22, 20.19 mg g−1 for DB71, and 14.62 mg g−1 for RB5. The analysis of thermodynamic study of ΔG°, ΔH°, and ΔS° proved that the adsorption of the tested dyes onto SMW was endothermic and spontaneous. Based on these results, SMW can be considered as high potential adsorbent for the removal of dyes from wastewater.

Highly Efficient and Sustainable Spent Mushroom Waste Adsorbent Based on Surfactant Modification for the Removal of Toxic Dyes.

The treatment of wastewater always demands eco-friendly and cost-efficient adsorbents. In this paper, spent mushroom waste (SMW) was modified by a cationic surfactant (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, CTAB) to eliminate toxic dyes. A characterization of adsorbents confirmed that CTAB was successfully embedded into the SMW structure. The spent mushroom waste, modified by CTAB (SMWC), exhibited an excellent adsorption capacity of 249.57 mg·g−1, 338.67 mg·g−1, and 265.01 mg·g−1 for the Direct red 5B (DR5B), Direct blue 71 (DB71), and Reactive black (RB5) dyes, respectively. Batch experiments indicated that the dye adsorption of SMWC depended mainly on pH, dye concentration, temperature, and ionic strength. The adsorption isotherm could be fitted to the Langmuir model and described by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The dye adsorption mechanism was dominated mostly by the chemosorption of the dyes and the SMWC surface. Thermodynamic parameters showed that the adsorption was endothermic and spontaneous. SMWC could successfully remove over 90% of dyes from various water samples. This can be considered a feasible waste resource utility, since it meets both the ecological and the economic requirements for auspicious industrial applications.

Chemical Composition of Vermicompost Made from Organic Wastes through the Vermicomposting and Composting with the Addition of Fish Meal and Egg Shells Flour

Chemical composition of compost is an important indicator that determines the quality of compost. This study compared the chemical composition of vermicompost resulting from the process of vermicomposting alone with combined vermicomposting and composting with addition of egg shells flour and fish meal. Organic wastes used were the mixture of spent mushrooms waste, coconut husks, cow dung, vegetables residue, and leaf litter. Lumbricus rubellus was the species of earthworm used in the vermicomposting process. In the composting process, egg shells flour and fish meal are added into the vermicompost as additives materials. The results indicate that the combined vermicomposting and composting process with addition the additives materials improves the chemical composition of vermicompost compared to using vermicomposting process alone. The change of chemical composition was indicated by a decrease in C-organic content and C/N ratio by 29% and 99%, respectively, while the content of N, P, K and S increased by 52%, 67.5%, 29% and 25%, respectively due to the addition of additives material in the composting process. The largest increase of vermicompost nutrient content occurred in the Ca content by an average of up to 7-fold. While polyphenols, lignin and cellulose content of vermicompost decreased slightly. The treatment of two mixture (a) spent mushrooms waste, cow dung and vegetables residue, and (b) spent mushroom waste, cow dung, vegetables residue, and leaf litter gave the best chemical composition. However, to determine the quality, we need to test the product in a plant growth bioassay as a follow-up study.

Water-stable aggregates and aggregate-associated organic carbon and nitrogen after three annual applications of poultry manure and spent mushroom wastes

Water stable aggregates influence mechanisms for both water and fertility conservation and nutrient release in the soil. The effect of application of different organic amendments on aggregate stability and carbon-nitrogen storage within aggregates of a degraded soil was studied. The treatments were: control (P0S0), no amendments, 5tha−1 poultry manure (P5S0), 10tha−1 poultry manure (P10S0), 5tha−1 spent mushroom waste (P0S5), 10tha−1 spent mushroom waste (P0S10) and 5tha−1 each of poultry manure and spent mushroom waste (P5S5) applied in three consecutive years. These were arranged in randomized complete block design in five replicates. Soil samples were collected from the topsoil (0–20cm), air-dried and separated into 4.75–2.0, 2.0–1.0, 1.0–0.5, 0.5–0.25, and <0.25mm aggregate classes by dry sieving. Results showed that P5S5 increased macro aggregates >0.25mm and mean weight diameter (MWD) over other treatments. Saturated hydraulic conductivities (Ksat) were 17.55cmhr−1 and 16.28cmhr−1 in P5S0 and P0S10 amended soils, respectively. Generally, spent mushroom waste (SMW) and poultry manure (PM) significantly (p<0.05) reduced bulk density and increased total porosity, indicating positive effects of SMW and PM as soil amendments. Total nitrogen (N) concentrations in aggregate classes were significantly higher in soils amended with PM and SMW than the control. The P10S0 treatment had the highest concentrations of N (1.51gkg−1) in 1.0–0.5mm aggregates size class. Soil organic carbon (SOC) was preferentially higher in larger aggregates >2mm and in smaller aggregates <0.25mm irrespective of treatments, whereas, total N was higher in aggregates >0.5mm in PM amended soils. In all the treatments, SOC was enriched in larger aggregates than smaller aggregates. Poultry manure improved soil structure, aggregate-associated OC and total N than SMW. However, SMW has the potentials for use as soil amendment because it showed positive effects on soil structure and soil C-N storage.

Evaluation of spent mushroom waste from Lentinula edodes cultivation for consolidated bioprocessing fermentation by Phlebia sp. MG-60

Spent mushroom waste (SMW) produced by Lentinula edodes cultivation was evaluated for consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) fermentation using ethanol-fermenting white-rot fungus Phlebia sp. MG-60. The chemical structure and digestibility of SMW produced in the factory were affected by the fruit body budding process. The multiple fruiting body budding and harvesting process accompanied by an extension of the culture period did not reduce the value of the biomass feedstock. Solvent extraction of SMW improved the fermentability at the early phase of ethanol production, indicating the presence of inhibitors in SMW. However, because ethanol production recovered at a late phase of incubation, these inhibitors may have been neutralized by MG-60. Laccase activity was observed in the fermenting culture of the early phase. The combination of edible mushroom cultivation and CBP fermentation has potential as a new bioethanol production process that is cost effective and has little environmental impact.

Biodegradation of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide-contaminated soils by white-rot fungal inocula.

The ability of certain white-rot fungi (WRF) inocula to transform heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide and its application in artificially contaminated soil were investigated. Fungal inoculum of Pleurotus ostreatus eliminated approximately 89 % of heptachlor after 28 days of incubation, and chlordene was detected as the primary metabolite. The fungal inoculum of Pleurotus ostreatus had the highest ability to degrade heptachlor epoxide; approximately 32 % were degraded after 28 days of incubation, and heptachlor diol was detected as the metabolite product. Because Pleurotus ostreatus transformed heptachlor into a less toxic metabolite and could also effectively degrade heptachlor epoxide, it was then selected to be applied to artificially contaminated soil. The spent mushroom waste (SMW) of Pleurotus ostreatus degraded heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide by approximately 91 and 26 %, respectively, over 28 days. This finding indicated that Pleurotus ostreatus SMW could be used to bioremediate heptachlor- and heptachlor epoxide-contaminated environments.

Spent Mushroom Waste as a Media Replacement for Peat Moss in Kai‐Lan (Brassica oleracea var. Alboglabra) Production

Peat moss (PM) is the most widely used growing substrate for the pot culture. Due to diminishing availability and increasing price of PM, researchers are looking for viable alternatives for peat as a growth media component for potted plants. A pot study was conducted with a view to investigate the possibility of using spent mushroom waste (SMW) for Kai-lan (Brassica oleracea var. Alboglabra) production replacing peat moss (PM) in growth media. The treatments evaluated were 100% PM (control), 100% SMW, and mixtures of SMW and PM in different ratios like 1 : 1, 1 : 2, and 2 : 1 (v/v) with/without NPK amendment. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with five replications per treatment. Chemical properties like pH and salinity level (EC) of SMW were within the acceptable range of crop production but, nutrient content, especially nitrogen content was not enough to provide sufficient nutrition to plant for normal growth. Only PM (100%) and SMW and PM mixture in 1 : 1 ratio with NPK amendment performed equally in terms of Kai-lan growth. This study confirms the feasibility of replacing PM by SMW up to a maximum of 50% in the growth media and suggests that NPK supplementation from inorganic sources is to ensure a higher productivity of Kai-lan.

Arsenic mobility in the amended mine tailings and its impact on soil enzyme activity

The objectives of this study were to elucidate the effects of soil amendments [Ferrous sulfate (Fe(II)), red mud, Fe(II) with calcium carbonate (Fe(II)/L) or red mud (RM/F), zero-valent iron (ZVI), furnace slag, spent mushroom waste and by-product fertilizer] on arsenic (As) stabilization and to establish relationships between soil properties, As fractions and soil enzyme activities in amended As-rich gold mine tailings (Kangwon and Keumkey). Following the application of amendments, a sequential extraction test and evaluation of the soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase and β-glucosidase) were conducted. Weak and negative relationships were observed between water-soluble As fractions (As(WS)) and oxalate extractable iron, while As(WS) was mainly affected by dissolved organic carbon in alkaline tailings sample (Kangwon) and by soil pH in acidic tailings sample (Keumkey). The soil enzyme activities in both tailings were mainly associated with As(WS). Principal component and multiple regression analyses confirmed that As(WS) was the most important factor to soil enzyme activities. However, with some of the treatments in Keumkey, contrary results were observed due to increased water-soluble heavy metals and carbon sources. In conclusion, our results suggest that to simultaneously achieve decreased As(WS) and increased soil enzyme activities, Kangwon tailings should be amended with Fe(II), Fe(II)/L or ZVI, while only ZVI or RM/F would be suitable for Keumkey tailings. Despite the limitations of specific soil samples, this result can be expected to provide useful information on developing a successful remediation strategy of As-contaminated soils.

Application of mushroom waste medium from Pleurotus ostreatus for bioremediation of DDT-contaminated soil

The ability of spent mushroom waste (SMW) from Pleurotus ostreatus to degrade 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT) was investigated. DDT was degraded by 48% during a 28 d incubation and 5.1% of the DDT was mineralized during a 56 d incubation by SMW from P. ostreatus. The degradation potential in artificial DDT-contaminated soil was also investigated. The SMW from P. ostreatus degraded the DDT by 40% and 80% during a 28 d incubation in sterilized (SL) and un-sterilized (USL) soils, respectively. [U- 14C]DDT was mineralized by 5.1% and 8.0% during a 56 d incubation in SL and USL soils, respectively. These results indicate that SMW from P. ostreatus is a medium which can be potentially used for bioremediation in DDT-contaminated environments.