Spencer Foundation Research Articles

What a language is good for: Language socialization, language shift, and the persistence of code-specific genres in St. Lucia

In many bilingual and multilingual communities, certain communicative practices are code-specific in that they conventionally require, and are constituted in part through, the speaker's use of a particular code. Code-specific communicative practices, in turn, simultaneously constitute and partake of code-specific genres: normative, relatively stable, often metapragmatically salient types of utterance, or modes of discourse, that conventionally call for use of a particular code. This article suggests that the notions of code specificity and code-specific genre can be useful ones for theorizing the relationship between code and communicative practice in bilingual/multilingual settings, particularly those in which language shift and other contact-induced processes of linguistic and cultural change tend to highlight that relationship. This is demonstrated through an examination of how young children in St. Lucia are socialized to “curse” and otherwise assert themselves by means of a creole language that under most circumstances they are discouraged from using.The fieldwork on which this article is based was supported by the Fulbright Program, the National Science Foundation, and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research; immediate post-fieldwork support was provided by the Spencer Foundation. The work time necessary for writing this article was made possible by a Temple University Presidential Research Incentive Summer Fellowship, a Temple University Research/Study Leave, and a Wenner-Gren Foundation Richard Carley Hunt Fellowship. For their comments on a much briefer earlier version (presented at the 2003 Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association), I thank Bambi Schieffelin, Patricia Baquedano-López, and Leslie Moore. For comments on this version, I am grateful to Jane Hill and two anonymous reviewers. I am solely responsible for any and all shortcomings.

Multilingual play: Children's code-switching, role play, and agency in Dominica, West Indies

In Dominica, rural adults forbid children from speaking Patwa (a French-lexicon creole) in favor of acquiring English (the official language), contributing to a rapid language shift in most villages. However, adults value Patwa for a range of expressive functions and frequently code-switch around and to children. Children increasingly use English but employ Patwa for some functions during peer play when away from adults. This study examines how, despite possible sanctions, children use Patwa to enact particular adult roles during peer play, and what this signifies about their knowledge of role- and place-appropriate language use. Critically, they draw on their verbal resources and physically embodied social action to create imaginary play spaces both organized by and appropriate for Patwa. The examination of children's social worlds provides a more nuanced picture of language shift – and potential maintenance – than observing only adult-adult or adult-child interaction.An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2002 AAA Annual Meeting in New Orleans in a session organized by Marjorie Goodwin and Lourdes de León, “Children socializing children through language: New perspectives on agency, play, and identities.” I thank them for organizing this exciting and timely panel, and for their comments on my paper. I also thank Bambi Schieffelin, Ana Celia Zentella, Tamar Kremer-Sadlik, Carolina Izquierdo, Jane Hill, and two anonymous reviewers for Language in Society for their insightful comments. I am grateful to several organizations which funded the research: the U.S. Department of Education (Fulbright-Hays), the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, the National Science Foundation, and the Spencer Foundation. My deepest thanks go to the Dominican children and their families who generously opened their lives to me. I alone take responsibility for any shortcomings here.

Electoral Structures, Venue Selection, and the (New?) Politics of School Desegregation

Are school desegregation proponents more likely to succeed in local political arenas in the South than in federal courtrooms? To raise that question on the fiftieth anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education may seem absurd. Had local politics in the South been receptive to desegregation efforts, there would presumably have been scant need for the litigation leading to that landmark case. However, the legal environment, national political climate, and political situation in southern school districts have changed considerably in fifty years—in ways that make the question relevant. Today, we suggest, the answer may frequently be yes.Stephen Samuel Smith is the author of Boom for Whom? Education, Desegregation, and Development in Charlotte. Karen M. Kedrowski is author of Media Entrepreneurs and the Media Enterprise in the U.S. Congress. Joseph M. Ellis is interested in Soviet and post-Soviet politics. The authors thank Manning B. Shaw III for skilled research assistance; Ted Arrington, William Crotty, Anita Earls, Ken Meier, Jennifer Hochschild, and the anonymous reviewers for valuable comments; and the Spencer Foundation and the Winthrop University Research Council for grants to Smith. The authors bear sole responsibility for any errors.

The Challenge of Improving Instruction in Urban High Schools: Case Studies of the Implementation of the Chicago Academic Standards

We are grateful to the Field-Initiated Studies Education Research Grant Program at the U.S. Department of Education and the Research on School Reform Initiative at the Spencer Foundation. The opinions expressed here are solely those of the authors and not of the U.S. Department of Education or the Spencer Foundation. Research assistance was provided by Jenifer Blaxall, Sophia Hughes, Valerie Moyer, Simrit Dhesi, and Sarah Graff. Requests for reprints should be sent to Kenneth K. Wong, Professor of Public Policy and Education, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, 230 Appleton Place, Peabody 514, Nashville, TN 37203-5701. E-mail: ken.wong@vanderbilt.edu

Bridging the Grammar Gap: An Interdisciplinary Approach

collaboration. We had all previously been involved in various interdisciplinary projects-it seems as though English teachers are always being tapped as collaborators with history, science, and even math departments due to the recent emphasis on writing across the curriculum. Pairing English and foreign language curricula, however, had always seemed, well, foreign to us. Why take on the extra time that a collaboration would require? At first, we focused on our common problem. No matter how many minilessons, writing workshops, or worksheets we gave our students, they still could not master those pesky grammar/usage issues such as correct comma placement, the use of active and passive voice, subject/verb and pronoun agreement, strategic use of persuasive techniques, and others. We became determined to take our conversations beyond the blame game and our defensive response, It's not my job to teach grammar. Instead, we sought an open dialogue. We explored resources to fund our hunch that an untapped interdisciplinary connection would be fruitful. We applied for and received a Teacher-Practitioner Research grant from the Spencer Foundation to pilot a formal collaboration between the two departments. Planning and Preparation

Independent scholars: A neglected breed

T he status of public intellectuals and part-time faculty receives frequent attention, while that of independent scholars is usually ignored.Yet the production of more scholars than campuses employ inevitably puts a growing number outside the academic orbit. Either existing insti tutions--universities, research libraries, funding programs, scholarly societies, journals, and presses--will respond to the changing ecology of scholarship; new institutions will cater to it; or the excess scholars will waste like uncropped corn.To an extent, all three alternatives are likely.This article will discuss notable features that emerge from a review of the largely uncharted terrain of independent scholarship. In various definitions, independent scholars are those unaffiliated with an academic, or with any, institution, or whose work duties do not include research and scholarship.Typically, they are Ph.D.s in the humanities, often women, who, unable to find scholarly employment ("independent," a wit says, is a euphemism for"unemployed"), pursue scholarly interests on their own.Though the term"scholar" is little used in the social sciences, many anthropologists, sociologists, political scientists, economists, psychologists (75% of those who received a Ph.D. in 1999) practice their profession off campus. The definition is a cloud that can obscure such basic questions as the number of independent scholars, their professional needs, and what policies best serve their interests. In practice, an independent scholar is anyone who believes he or she is one and w h o m a professional association, granting agency, or library accepts as one. In 1989, James Bennett, who received $148,000 from the Spencer Foundation to study independent scholars (and, housed at Northwestern, was then no longer independent) , estimated that there were 20,00025,000 in the humanities and social sciences. His estimate included all nonacademic scholars; the number of unaffiliated scholars was far lower. Few academic societies accurately represent the full spect rum of persons with graduate degrees in their field.Typically, they over-represent university faculty and under-represent faculty at 2and 4-year colleges, masters and Ph.D.s in nonacademic jobs, and those who are unemployed or retired.

Cross-linguistic perspectives on the development of text-production abilities

The studies reported in this volume of WL&L (5: 1–2, 2002) all derive from a joint project entitled “Developing literacy in different contexts and in different languages”, funded by the Spencer Foundation, Chicago. The study encompasses seven languages — Dutch, English, French, Hebrew, Icelandic, Spanish, and Swedish — for which data were collected in Europe, Israel, and the US by graduate research assistants in education, linguistics, and psychology, under the supervision of a project director in each country — each of whom is listed as a first or “lead” author in the articles which follow the introduction to this collection.

New Directions in American Educational History: Problems and Prospects

This article, based on a Spencer Foundation sponsored conference on new directions in the history of education, examines the dilemma of audience and voice. It connects the "golden era" of American educational historiography to the education reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, and then discusses recent developments in the areas of people of color, history and policy, higher education, and a gender-based history. It suggests ways history might be connected to current educational research issues.

Performance, Aspirations, and Risky Organizational Change

I am grateful to James G. March for the conversations that started this research, to Willie Ocasio, Anjali Sastry, Christine Oliver, three anonymous reviewers for ASQ, and seminar participants at Kobe University and Keio Business School for helpful comments on the paper, and to Linda Johanson for editorial guidance. Research support from Stanford Center for Organizations Research, the Richard D. Irwin Foundation, and the Spencer Foundation is gratefully acknowledged. An earlier version of this paper appeared in the 1996 Academy of Management Best Papers Proceedings. The study reported here uses learning theory to examine how performance feedback affects the probability of risky organizational changes that are consequential to an organization's performance. The theory predicts how decision makers interpret organizational performance by comparing it with historical and social aspiration levels. Empirical analysis of the consequences of performance shortfalls on the probability of strategic change in the radio broadcasting industry shows clear sensitivity to social and historical aspiration levels. It also shows that changes seen or done by the station predict future change, suggesting that the recent experiences of organizations cause differences in capabilities and perceived opportunities, leading to differences in organizational inertia.'

Research in Progress

Research in Progress Mary Ellen Chijioke We know that the George Fox tri-centennial is past when we get a sixmonth periodwith noreports ofnewprojects in seventeenth-century Quaker history. Currentresearch is also dominated by social, not religious, history. Eighteenth-century England is represented by Christina M. Devlin (575 South Bengstorff Avenue, #97, Mountain View, CA 94040), who is studying eighteenth-century Quaker printers in London and Philadelphia, especially Tace Sowie Raylton and the Bradfords. Herresearch is related to her Ph.D. dissertation in the History of Christianity for the University of Chicago Divinity School. Women's Studies continues to draw veryheavily upon Quakertopics and resources. Alice Eichholz (Box 766, Montpelier, VT 05602), on the faculty of Vermont College of Norwich University, is examining Long Island Quaker families for a study of six generations ofwomen's experience. Rita M. Broyles (640 Okmalgee Street, Norman, OK73071) has a grantfrom the New Jersey Historical Commission for her masters thesis on the women of Monmouth County, New Jersey during the Revolutionary era; she is making particularuse ofthe materials related to Shrewsbury Monthly Meeting. Jean H. Baker (8717 McDonogh Road, Baltimore, MD 21 208), afaculty member in the History Department of Goucher College, is preparing a book on suffragists, including many Quaker women. Several current projects relate to Lucretia Mott. Elizabeth A. Roslewicz (3428 Lakeside View Drive, Falls Church, VA 22041) is doing her dissertation in Adult Education on Mott and Quaker alternatives to dominant social and ethical thought in the public domain. Irene P. Baros-Johnson (1055 Lucknow Street, #506, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 2T3) is continuing her interest in Mott, currently studying her rug-making. These scholars and others will be pleased to know that Beverly Wilson Palmer of the Department of History, Pomona College (Claremont, CA 9171 1) has received funding from the National Historical Publications and Records Commission towards producing a one-volume edition ofMott's letters. The project has also been designated as host for an historical editing fellowship. While Mott may be getting special attention, many scholars are working on other individual Quaker women or women with Quaker ties. Andrea Constantine Hawkes (205 Rockland Street, Portsmouth, NH 03801) is writing her dissertation in History for the University ofMaine on "The Life 74Quaker History of Elizabeth Wilson McClintoch Phillips (1821-1896): A Story of Family, Community, and a Self-Made Woman." Marian Brubaker (247 North Duke Street, Lancaster, PA 17601) is editing the diaries of Phebe Earle Gibbons, a Friend who taught school in New York City 1 839- 1 845. Sherrie Schulke (310 East Sherman, Newberg, OR 97132) has a George Fox University Faculty Grant for completing her dissertation on Jane Addams and the Society of Friends. Vanessa Northington Gamble, of the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine (1300 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706), is writing a biography of Virginia Alexander, physician and Friend active in the Race Relations Committee of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. Two researchers are using Quaker sources in the study of abolitionism and African-American history. Kathryn Grover (115 Pleasant Street, New Bedford, MA 02740), has a National Endowment for the Humanities grant and the Mystic Seaport Museum Cuffe Fellowship for her study of the relationship between New Bedford and Philadelphia Quaker antislavery activists, 1790-1860. Brian Driscoll (131 1 WestGourleyPark, Bloomington, IN 47404) has funding from the National Science Foundation and the Spencer Foundation for his dissertation in Sociology at Indiana University on "Education Reform in the Progressive Era: Northern Efforts to Effect Reform for Southern African-Americans." Several dimensions of Quaker efforts for peace are being examined by scholars. David C. Lawson (722 East Montgomery Street, Sparta, WI 54656) is writing a book on the American peace movement, 1815-1865. Kim Cash (7422 Nashville Road, Bowling Green, KY 42101) is doing her masters thesis in East Asian Studies on Quakers in occupied Japan, 19451952 . Jacqueline B. Magness (3428 Lakeside View Drive, Falls Church, VA 22041 ) is using Quaker sources for her dissertation in Adult Education on theories of the common good and reconciliation. Other researchers are dealing with a variety of other topics in Quaker social and intellectual history. Christopher Schroeder (5207-1 LeParc Drive, Wilmington, DE 19809) has funding from the Pew...

Impact of Adolescents' Perceived Self-Regulatory Efficacy on Familial Communication and Antisocial Conduct

The present study tested the hypothesis that perceived self-efficacy to resist peer pressure for high-risk activities is related to transgressive con- duct, both directly and through the mediation of open familial communi- cation. Adolescents rated their self-regulatory efficacy, openness of com- munication with parents, and their involvement in delinquent conduct and substance abuse. Results of structural equation modeling confirmed that a high sense of efficacy to ward off negative peer influences was accompanied by open communication with parents about activities out-

Continuity and Change in Theories of Organizational Action

The research has been supported by the Spencer Foundation and the Stanford Graduate School of Business. Address comments to the author at the Scandinavian Consortium for Organizational Research, 509 Ceras, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5015 (e-mail: march@leland.stanford.edu). Most theories of adaptation assume that effective learning requires a balance between exploration and exploitation but that such a balance is continually threatened by tendencies for both exploration and exploitation to be self-reinforcing. I tell a morality tale within such a frame about the past forty years in the study of organizations. The tale emphasizes the struggle of students of organizational action to maintain a rough balance between openness and discipline, thus proclaiming both the possibility of a balanced virtue and its rewards-a truly romantic story.'

Race and Educational Reform in the American Metropolis: A Study of School Decentralization.

Race and Educational Reform in American Metropolis: A Study of School Decentralization, by Dan A. Lewis and Kathryn Nakagawa. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995. 192 pp. $57.50, cloth; $18.95, paper. Reviewed by Ralph Edwards, Boston College. According to authors of this the decentralization of big city schools incorporates and co-opts demand for educational improvement into bureaucracy. Rather than resolving issues of race and class, decentralization has masked [them] in inclusionary policies (p. 167). For these scholars, then, decentralization but a ruse for maintaining status quo of unequal educational opportunity between urban, mostly minority, school districts and those located in predominantly White areas. argument presented in Race and Educational Reform in American Metropolis through a careful analysis of how decentralization was conceived and implemented in five major cities: New York City, Detroit, Dade County (Miami, Florida), Los Angeles, and Chicago. Most of data book draws upon was collected during an earlier decentralization study conducted by senior author Lewis, a professor of education and social policy at Northwestern University, and supported by a 1988 Spencer Foundation grant. data consists primarily of interviews he conducted with educational, political, and leaders in five under study and with persons those leaders recommended to him. Ample reference made to these interviews throughout which contains several useful tables and an appendix at end describing methodology employed. The were selected, authors tell us, for two principal reasons: (a) their school systems typically embody what has come to be known as education, and (b) their public schools were decentralized in response to concerns of minority communities. Additionally, approaches to decentralization adopted by these serve to illustrate what authors consider two basic strategies through which this particular reform implemented in urban settings, namely, and enablement. The model, Lewis and Nakagawa (an assistant professor of education at University of California-Irvine) contend, results from pressures outside a school system to reform it. model calls upon parents and other principal stakeholders of a system to take control of how it run. The enablement model, by contrast, created from within a system, with parents and others assisting system's professionals in improving student performance. In latter case, outside interests (especially parents) have support and advisory roles; in former, they have power of governance. New York City, Detroit, and especially Chicago are offered by authors as examples of cities; Dade County and Los Angeles exemplify enablement models. The authors note that school-based management (SBM), which often associated with empowerment, actually an enablement strategy because, under it, school professionals decide how schools are run. SBM, they point out, promotes empowerment with respect to teachers and staff rather than parents and community (p. 15). In end, however, both strategies are seen by these researchers as an institutional shell game (p. 5), in which real power never changes hands. Despite decentralization, they conclude, poor communities continue to be denied human and financial resources needed to make their school systems work. At outset (indeed, in book's very first sentence) authors state their fundamental concern: This book, they write, is about education of African Americans in our large cities (p. xi). point of departure leads rather naturally to a discussion of urban school desegregation because decentralization evolved essentially from failed efforts to desegregate inner-city public schools. …

Work/Family Programs and the Employment Relationship

This research was supported by the Spencer Foundation. I am grateful to Rose Batt for superb research assistance and to Lotte Bailyn, Steve Barley, Peter Cappelli, David Knoke, and Maureen Scully for comments. Using data from a representative sample of American private-sector establishments, this paper explains variation across firms in the implementation of work/family programs by examining how these are related to the employment strategy of organizations. The central hypothesis is that firms seeking to implement so-called high-performance or high-commitment work systems, incorporating employee involvement and quality programs, are more likely to adopt work/family programs as part of an effort to build up the level of workforce commitment to the enterprise. This hypothesis is tested, controlling for two other broad hypothesized effects: (1) that adoption of work/family programs is linked to the demand for them arising either from workforce problems such as absenteeism and turnover or from pressure from the labor force; and (2) that adoption is linked to whether employers already have in place elements of well-developed internal labor markets such as job ladders and human resource departments. Results show considerable support for the link between work/family programs and the use of high-commitment work systems.'

Jumping Ship: The Diffusion of Strategy Abandonment

This paper is part of my doctoral dissertation at Stanford University. I am grateful for the advice of James G. March, William P. Barnett, and Joel Podolny, the comments of Michael T. Hannan, Pamela Haunschild, Christine Oliver, David Strang, Nancy Brandon Tuma, and anonymous reviewers for ASQ, and the editorial assistance of Linda Pike. Financial support from the Stanford Center of Organizations Research, the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, the Richard D. Irwin Foundation, and the Spencer Foundation is gratefully acknowledged. This paper focuses on organizations' abandonment of strategy, which may be driven jointly by contagion qnd competition from other organizations. This paper treats both explanations but emphasizes contagion. I argue that strategy abandonment is contagious because the future performance of current and alternative strategies is highly uncertain, causing decision makers to examine the actions of other organizations in the industry for clues to the correct action. Contagion from organizations easily observed by the focal organization is stronger than contagion from other organizations, causing corporate links across markets to become important routes for the contagion of strategy abandonment. This theory is tested on a sample of radio stations abandoning a strategy and is supported by evidence that contagion of abandonment occurs through the influence of an organization's social reference groups.'

Sex and the empire that is no more: gender and the politics of metaphor in Oyo Yoruba religion

Matory's ethnography commands serious respect. His centralthesis concerning the gendering of power relations in the Oyo Empire, and its continuing expression in the cult of Sango, is brilliant and original. The symbolic analysis of contemporary initiation to the Sango cult ...shows real virtuosity ...[Also] of great value is his account of the state of religious heterogeneity in Oyo North. book should make a significant mark outside the field of Yoruba studies, in the anthropology of gender at large. * J.D.Y. Peel, FBA, University of London An exemplary exercise in historical anthropology ...with interpretive and forensic skill [the author] narrates how the traditions of Sango and Ogun are carried into and participate inthe post-independence political and economical developments, and how they relate to contemporary Islamic and Christian religious streams. * Stanley J. Tambiah, Harvard University A bold and innovative study of the interplay between gender,power and religion. Its relevance to feminist theory is unquestionable ...Gender categories and all that is associated with them are changed by the negotiation of politically interested actors, both male and female ...It situates itself within a 'mythic' paradigm which, the author argues, is close to indigenous conceptualizations of the past and present; but at the same time it is unmistakably located in the real, hybrid and confusing world of contemporary Nigeria, and not in some idealized world of 'tradition'. * Karin Barber, University of Birmingham [Matory's] richly argued text, strong with insight, strong with documents, is a classic in Yoruba studies. * Robert F. Thompson, Yale University This second edition of the seminal [book] seems more salient in retrospect as the international interest in orisha worship and the meaning of transatlantic aesthetics that claim a Yoruba ancestry increases...Along with his theoretical guidance, Matory provides rich procedural, ritual detail that contextualizes the multifaceted aspect of orisha worship for specific sets of completed ritual communities. * International Journal of African Historical Studies J. Lorand Matory researches the trans-Atlantic comings and goings of Yoruba religion, as well as ethnic diversity in Black North America. With the support of the National Science Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Spencer Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Education's Fulbright-Hays Fellowship, he has conducted extensive field research in Brazil, Nigeria, and the United States. Dr. Matory is also the author of Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism and Matriarchy in the Afro-Brazilian Candomble (Princeton University Press). He is currently researching a book on the history and experience of Nigerians, Trinidadians, Ethiopians, black Indians, Louisiana Creoles and other ethnic groups that make up black North American society. It focuses on the creative coexistence of these groups at the United States' leading historically Black university-Howard University

Information and Secrecy: Vannevar Bush, Ultra, and the Other Memex.

From the Publisher: Written for the general reader, Burke's volume provides the first view of the relationships among America's librarians, cryptanalysts and educators as they created information science, computerized codebreaking, and the modern research university. Using hundreds of primary and secret documents and more than twenty illustrations to trace the careers of Vannevar Bush of MIT and the navy's codebreaking agency, OP-20-G, Burke shows how the lack of coherent American science and intelligence policies led to the tangled lives of two proto-computers that were the world's first electronic data-processing machines. The histories of Bush's Memex-like microfilm Rapid Selector for the American Documentalists and his Comparator for those who created the nation's Ultra Bombe and RAM machines began in the early 1930s and suffered through a generation of struggles with intransigent technologies, policy conflicts with the British over the control of signals-intelligence and the unwillingness of America to develop information and intelligence technologies until the Cold War turned to science and the library to fulfill defense needs. Now, as the United States is on the verge of investing billions of dollars in information highways while reducing its intelligence capabilities, the tragedy of Bush's machines warns against information scientists putting technology ahead of logic and of the dangers of the nation returning to isolationism. Indexed and with extensive endnotes which serve the bibliographic function. Author Biography: Colin Burke (Ph.D., Washington University) is an historian and educator who has written on American social history, the history of higher education, quantitative methodsand the history of computers. He has received awards from, among others, the SSRC and the Spencer Foundation. He was the senior Fulbright scholar in Poland during the fall of Communism and has acted as a consultant to government agencies.

Lawrence A. Cremin: A Biographical Memoir

Lawrence A. Cremin was Frederick A. P. Barnard Professor of Education at Teachers College and president of the Spencer Foundation at the time of his untimely death, at the age of sixty-four, in September 1990. A former president of Teachers College, Columbia University, and a prolific author, Cremin played a leading role in many professional, governmental, and philanthropic organizations. This memoir, written by two of Cremin's former students and colleagues, details his life and career.

Edward Boyle: Conservative champion of comprehensives?1

1 This paper arises out of a research project entitled ‘When a Society Changes its School System: The Introduction of Comprehensive Schools in Great Britain’, being jointly prosecuted by Duke University, North Carolina and the University of Leicester. I am grateful to the Spencer Foundation, Chicago for generously sponsoring the project. Thanks are also due to Mr P. Morrish, Sub‐Librarian (Special Collections) and Mr M. Davies of the Brotherton Library, University of Leeds for their invaluable assistance.

On Teacher Knowledge: A Skeptical Dialogue*

Educational TheoryVolume 38, Issue 4 p. 457-466 On Teacher Knowledge: A Skeptical Dialogue† D. C. Phillips, Corresponding Author D. C. PhillipsSchool of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305–3096.Search for more papers by this author D. C. Phillips, Corresponding Author D. C. PhillipsSchool of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305–3096.Search for more papers by this author First published: December 1988 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5446.1988.00457.xCitations: 7 † *Preparation of this article was supported by the Spencer Foundation as part of the “Knowledge Growth in Teaching” Project at Stanford University. Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume38, Issue4December 1988Pages 457-466 RelatedInformation