Spectator Attendance Research Articles

THE PERVASIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE ON SPORTING EVENT ATTENDANCE

Previous empirical studies attempting to predict sports spectator attendance have centered primarily on aggregate data, and as such have overlooked more consumerspecific effects on patronage. Using a field study approach at professional baseball games, the interactive effects of team identification, social influence (reference group and community acceptance), and perceived ticket value are found to influence spectators' intentions to attend future games. Implications are drawn concerning the effects of owner and player work stoppages on future patronage of games.

The Effects of Team Loyalty and Selected Stadium Factors on Spectator Attendance

Having loyal fans and a winning team generally results in higher attendance at games. However, university and professional team administrators are beginning to recognize the importance of marketing the stadium experience as more than just the game. Drawing from data collected from spectators at five Southeastern Conference football stadiums, the effects of team loyalty, stadium parking, stadium cleanliness, perceived crowding, food service, and fan behavior control on spectators' desire to stay and attend games at the stadium were investigated. Covariance structural modeling (e.g., LISREL) was employed to test the causal relationships among the hypothesized relationships. The results support the premise that although team loyalty strongly affects attendance, stadium design and stadium services also directly influence spectators' desire to stay, and hence, attend games at the stadium.

Searching for Sociability in the Stands: A Theory of Sports Spectating

It is argued that the social forces of urbanization, individualism, interpersonal competition, technology, and geographical mobility have brought greater and greater numbers of strangers into people's everyday lives and have made the achievement of primary, social ties with relatives, friends, neighbors, and workmates more difficult. As a result, many are forced to satisfy their needs for sociability in less personal, less intimate, less private ways. It is proposed that sports spectating has emerged as a major urban structure where spectators come together not only to be entertained but to enrich their social psychological lives through the sociable, quasi-intimate relationships available. The changing nature of the sociability experience in America presents sport managers with interesting challenges and opportunities. A number of recommendations are offered for maximizing the gemeinschaft possibilities of sports spectating facilities. By giving greater attention to the individual and communal possibilities of their events, sport managers can increase spectator attendance while rendering an important public service.

Developing a checkoff program to benefit the U. S. horse industry

Summary Financial resources are inadequate for the research, educational and promotional need of the horse industry. As a major component of American agriculture and as one of the nation's foremost recreational and entertainment industries, the horse industry generates widespread benefits to the U.S. economy. Public relations and promotional efforts are needed to foster the long-term viability and growth of the industry, to increase consumer demand for horses and horse industry products, and to increase spectator attendance at equine-related events. Research efforts are needed to reduce losses incurred by producers from equine health problems and suboptimal performance. Educational efforts are needed to disseminate research-based information on management techniques that enhance the value and productivity of horses. A proposed solution is to develop and enact a checkoff program to support promotion, research and educational needs of the horse industry. A program uniquely tailored to the industry utilizing a three-tiered approach addressing horse owners, horse industry sports participants, and equine event spectators has the potential to generate $10 to $15 million annually.

Team Racial Composition and Sports Attendance

The premise that the racial composition of professional sports teams is a significant factor in explaining paid attendance variability is tested in this article. A model of the general determinants of sports attendance, including the percentage of black players on each team, is developed and applied to longitudinal samples of National Basketball Association teams from 1969 to 1983. This pooled cross-sectional panel model is analyzed within a generalized least-squares framework. While the empirical results are generally consistent with previous estimates for spectator attendance models, team racial composition has no discernible impact upon the level of attendance. Several interaction hypotheses are considered, but when these more complex propositions are evaluated, player race still has no noticeable effect upon attendance. Some implications of these results for race relations and for the structure of salary determination within professional basketball are discussed.

New Concept in Motion Picture Presentation

Motion picture presentation is the least known endeavor for the cinema professional. A dramatic decrease in spectator attendance of the French cinemas, some years ago, has mobilized the French cinema industry. In France, today, 4400 cinemas are visited by about 180,000,000 spectators per year. A choice of 300 different films is offered per week. The paper traces a profile of the typical French moviegoer. The location and arrangement of the contemporary new theaters is summarized. A profound change of the presentation means has produced, in a short span of time, a renewal of almost all projection equipment. Simultaneously, standards and specifications have been drawn up by the corresponding authorities for the design of new theaters. The restructuring of the cinema theater in France has increased spectator frequency and multiplied the choice of films available.

Consumption efficiency and spectator attendance

The impact of education on individual behaviour has been analyzed for a broad range of economic activity.(l) One area of research has focused on the relationship between education and efficiency in consumption, or in non-market production activities.(2) Within a human capital framework, it is suggested that education raises the productivity of an individual's time in non-market production activities. More highly educated individuals are expected to be more efficient in gathering and utilizing information relevant to consumption decisions, and in transforming inputs to output in the household production function. They may also be more receptive to the use of new and improved consumer products. Increased efficiency in consumption effectively lowers the prices of commodities "produced" by more highly educated consumers, and thereby increases their real incomes. All other things equal, education should affect consumer behaviour in the same manner as increasing money income, holding prices constant. In fact, since education generally alters an individual's marginal productivity in both market and non-market production activities, the observed relationship between education and consumption could reflect efficiency changes in both market and non-market production (i.e. consumption) activities.(3) Numerous studies of attendance patterns at performing arts events have pointed a positive and significant relationship between an individual's .education level and his or her frequency of performance attendance .(4) While the relationship might reflect a positive association between education and income, there is some evidence that education, holding income constant, has a net positive influence on arts attendance.(5) Indeed, the existence of a causal relationship between education and arts attendance is a fundamental premise held by arts policy-makers. It is, therefore, noteworthy that no significant attempt has been made to develop and test a structural model

SOME ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RECREATIONAL INJURIES

This paper deals with some basic features of accidents in recreation and will attempt to throw some light on their economic consequences. Let us examine sport as one aspect of recreation. As Williams (1973) put it, "Sport is a phenomenon of simple definition, but with well recognised features. It is essentially recreational, essentially physical, frequently competitive and always contrived." The number and type of participants has increased, along with the range of activities available. Classifications of sport, at best, are arbitrary but nevertheless are useful for analysis. These divisions may be land/air/water types; indoor/outdoor; team/individual; body contact/non-contact/vehicular; amateur/professional. Sports injuries are of two types, intrinsic or self-inflicted (Williams, 1973) and extrinsic. Intrinsic injuries refer to those as a result of over-use (leading, for example, to stress fractures) and to specific incidents not involving outside agents. Extrinsic injuries are caused by contact with external objects and form the bulk of injuries sustained in body-contact, vehicular (horses, cars, skis) and environmental-type sports. Extrinsic injuries are generally more severe because greater forces and velocities are involved. Appendix 1 lists the main sporting activities according to location of sport; individual or team participation; likelihood of extensive body contact; and professional status. Professional players not only suffer loss of earning capacity but may reflect a bad investment for an entrepreneur or reduce spectator attendance and gate taking. It is apparent that team sports, having substantial body contact, face a higher risk of moderate to serious injury than do individual, non-contact sports, although major injuries can be sustained in the latter, for example, sprains and dislocations in athletics, golf, tennis, etc. Other sports must be classed as dangerous because of the nature of competition, for example, motor racing and flying. These particulars were collated during a survey on economic aspects of sport undertaken by the author in 1971-72 in Queensland. Some indication of the proportion of sport participants in the total Queensland population is given in Table 1.

The Baseball Players' Labor Market

The Baseball Players' Labor Market