Specific Water Use Research Articles

Purification Resistance Index: A new water quality assessment method toward drinking water production

Water quality assessment plays a significant role in ensuring the availability of clean and safe water. The Water Quality Index (WQI) model method has been developed to provide a basis for assessing water quality by integrating various water quality parameters. However, existing WQIs do not “actively” consider the difficulty of water treatment from raw water to specific water use scenarios. This study proposes a novel model framework, named as Purification Resistance Index (PRI), quantitatively evaluating not only the exceedance of pollutants but also how difficult they can be removed in the water treatment process. The framework is built based on the conventional drinking water treatment processes, with sub-indices for coagulation-sedimentation (rc), filtration (rf), disinfection (rd), and advanced treatment (ra). The model considers appropriate weights assigned to each sub-index to calculate the purification resistance, resulting in a comprehensive index for water quality evaluation. Case studies on nationwide and citywide water source reservoirs demonstrated the applicability of PRI approach. PRI breakthrough the traditional water quality risk assessment paradigm and extents to engineering region and provide useful tools for water source supervision, drinking water treatment plant planning and updating, operation control, and other purposes. Water authority, water utility and municipal design institute will all benefit. It is open for more localized practices validation and discussion.

Assessing risk factors for malaria and schistosomiasis among children in Misungwi, Tanzania, an area of co-endemicity: A mixed methods study.

Malaria and schistosomiasis are two major parasitic vector-borne diseases that are a particular threat to young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the present study, we investigated factors that are associated with malaria, schistosomiasis, and co-infection among school-aged children, using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach. A cross-sectional study was conducted in January 2022 in Misungwi, Tanzania, that sampled 1,122 children aged 5 to 14 years old for malaria and schistosomiasis infection. Mixed-effect logistic regression models were used to assess the association between infection prevalence or seroprevalence, and environmental determinants that create favorable conditions for vectors and parasites and social determinants that relate to disease exposure. Community mapping combined with direct field observations were conducted in August 2022 in three selected villages from the cross-sectional study to understand specific water use behaviors and to identify potential malaria mosquito larval breeding sites and freshwater snail habitat. The prevalence of malaria, seroprevalence of schistosomiasis, and co-infection in this study were 40.4%, 94.3%, and 38.1%, respectively. Individual-level factors emerged as the primary determinants driving the association with infection, with age (every one-year increase in age) and sex (boys vs girls) being statistically and positively associated with malaria, schistosomiasis, and co-infection (P<0.05 for all). Community maps identified many unimproved water sources in all three villages that were used by humans, cattle, or both. We found that children primarily fetched water, and that unprotected wells were dedicated for drinking water whereas ponds were dedicated for other domestic uses and cattle. Although not identified in the community maps, we found hand pumps in all three villages were not in use because of unpleasant taste and high cost. This study improves our understanding of individual, social and environmental factors that are associated with malaria, schistosomiasis, and co-infection, which can inform potential entry points for integrated disease prevention and control.

Apple trees utilize 3–5% of root biomass in the weathered rock layer to absorb 33–34% of their transpiration water consumption

Rocky regolith layer can restrain plant root growth, which may affect soil water unitization of deep-rooted fruit trees in rocky mountain areas. However, how and to what magnitude the rocky regolith layer shapes root features and thus changes trees’ water consumption, remains unclear. Here, we investigated the root features and water uptake strategies of apple trees in three apple orchards with the underlying weakly (WWP), strongly (SWP), and completely (CK) weathered regolith layer within soil profiles, in the hilly areas of Jiaodong Peninsula, China. The results showed that the fine root biomass density (FRBD) of apple trees decreased while the specific root length (SRL) increased with increasing soil depths in the three orchards. The FRBD within the rocky regolith layer only accounted for 3–5% of the total FRBD in the WWP and SWP orchards, which were significantly lower than that in the CK orchard (3.31–5.11% vs. 29.96%) (P < 0.05). The maximum SRL was 76.61 m·g-1 and 72.38 m·g-1 in the WWP and SWP orchards, respectively, being significantly higher than that in the CK orchard (55.26 m·g-1). Both the FRBD and SRL within the rocky regolith layer showed no significant difference between the WWP and SWP, which indicated that it was the presence but not the weathering intensity of the rocky regolith layer shaped apple trees’ root features. The MixSIAR model estimated that the water uptake of roots in the rocky regolith layer accounted for an average of 33.14% of the total water uptake in the WWP and SWP orchards. During the fruit expansion period (July-August) with high water consumption, apple trees’ water uptake in the rocky regolith layer contributed 41.40% of water consumption in the WWP orchardand 34.77% in the SWP, which can be comparable to that in the corresponding soil depth in the CK orchard (46.70%). This suggested that apple trees may prime root activity to absorb more soil water with decreased root biomass in the rocky regolith layer. Overall, apple trees could utilize 3–5% of root biomass to absorb 33–34% of water consumption in the rocky regolith layer. Our study highlights the specific water use strategies in rocky mountain areas and will benefit the sustainable water management in the orchards in these areas.

Development of function-specific indices for assessing water quality based on the proposed modifications of the expected conflicts on existing information entropy weights.

Water serves numerous purposes besides drinking, such as irrigation and industrial usage. Most water quality indices developed have primarily focused on drinking water quality. However, assessing other functionalities of water bodies is also equally essential. The present study proposes a novel technique to measure water quality for two highly specific water use, i.e., assessing heavy metal contamination and irrigation suitability. The ambiguities in the current practice of entropy weights were identified, and a novel method was proposed, considering a three-dimensional approach instead of the conventional two-dimensional procedure. Weights to different parameters were assigned based on the probability estimates obtained from the frequency of observed values within acceptable limits. The proposed method's reliability, correctness, and applicability were tested using Deepor Beel's water quality dataset. Results were highly consistent with the experimental values and correlated well with other established methods. The efficacy of the method was determined by employing sensitivity analyses. Both indices showed high reliability and correctness, as no single parameter was found to be highly sensitive compared to others. Therefore, the proposed methodology proved to be the most reasonable, incorporating all the factors required for a reliable water quality monitoring program.

How much is enough in watering plants? State-of-the-art in irrigation control: Advances, challenges, and opportunities with respect to precision irrigation

With a rapidly expanding global population placing an ever growing demand on freshwater resources, an increased focus on irrigation techniques tailored to the specific needs of plant appears as one solution to minimize overall freshwater consumption. Precision irrigation methods seek to realize an acceptable compromise between yield and irrigation water consumption through control of the timing and quantity of water supplied to plants. The goal is to maintain the water content of the soil, achieve specific water use efficiency with regard to yield or maintain the physiological response of the plant to water stress within predetermined limits. Reliance on soil moisture measurements to establish irrigation water demand inadequately addresses heterogenous distribution of water in soil. Growing research interest is observed detailing the determination of plant water status directly from physiological responses. This paper reviews irrigation control approaches based on different plant water status assessment techniques. A distinct focus is made on application scale of the discussed control approaches, an aspect that has not been considered intensively enough in previous discussions of irrigation control approaches. A discussion of the observed strengths and shortcomings and technological advances supporting the various methods used to quantify plant water status extends the review. Emerging trends that are likely to have an impact on plant water status determination and optimal timing and quantification of irrigation water requirements are integrated to show latest results. A peek into the future of precision irrigation foresees greater reliance on plant-based signals, both in characterization of the control variable, namely the plant water status, and in generation of controller outputs in terms of quantity and timing.

Determining transpiration coefficients of ‘Rojo Brillante’ persimmon trees under Mediterranean climatic conditions

There is scarce knowledge on what are the actual water requirements of persimmon trees (Diospyros kaki). Research on this topic is required to better adjust irrigation water supplies to the actual crop water needs. This study aimed to determine the transpiration coefficients (Kp) of persimmon ‘Rojo Brillante’ trees and assess how transpiration and Kp are influenced by environmental factors and the atmospheric demand under Mediterranean climatic conditions. This was done over the course of three growing seasons by means of sap flow measurements calibrated with whole canopy gas exchange chambers. Irrigation was applied aiming to avoid water limiting conditions for trees. This was verified by monitoring the trees’ water status across the growing seasons. Sap flow measurements were linearly and highly correlated (p < 0.001) with canopy transpiration (Ep) obtained with the whole canopy chambers, but either overestimated or underestimated it. Ep increased from April until June-July in response to canopy development and increased midday canopy light interception. There was a positive linear relationship between daily Ep, reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and solar radiation. However, a non-linear relationship was obtained between Ep and vapor pressure deficit (VPD). A positive non-linear relationship (p < 0.01) was observed between Kp (Ep / ETo in non-limited water conditions) and VPD, illustrating the low stomatal regulation that persimmon trees exhibit in response to air dryness. Kp varied over the growing seasons following the ETo pattern although showing comparatively a slighter decrease during the last part of the growing season. From June to September, Kp of persimmon ‘Rojo Brillante’ trees with a midday photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intercepted of ~30 % ranged from 0.45 to 0.56. A strong relationship was obtained between Kp and percentage of midday intercepted PAR that can be used to estimate Kp of persimmon ‘Rojo Brillante’ trees with a range of ground canopy covers. This information is useful for deriving specific water use models for persimmon trees to be implemented in decision support systems. The monthly transpiration coefficients here provided will be useful for optimizing irrigation scheduling decisions in persimmon orchards and therefore irrigation water management.

Atikamekw and Euro-Canadian Territorialities around the Saint-Maurice River (1850–1930)

This essay focuses on the processes of territorialization, deterritorialization and reterritorialization through which Euro-Canadian society extended its control along the valley of the St. Maurice River between 1850 and 1930. That territory had been settled by the Atikamekw people where they had established their hunting and fishing grounds for centuries. However, the Atikamekw people were confronted by environmental and technological transformations around the St. Maurice River with the implementation of sociotechnical systems during that time period, as two successive phases of industrialization based on specific water use brought along a proliferation of urban centers and the arrival of the large-scale industry. This was particularly the case when the proliferation of hydroelectric dams along the St. Maurice River and its tributaries followed the construction of fluvial infrastructure to facilitate the floating of wood pulp harvested in the upper basin of the river. Not only did the technical activities surrounding the construction of hydroelectric facilities materially transform the St. Maurice River watershed, they also allowed a symbolic appropriation of the land by the production of maps and surveys that ‘erased’ the presence of the Atikamekw. Physical and symbolic boundaries resulting from these new forms of organization and configuration of the territory restricted the spatial practices and representations of the Atikamekw. Logging confined these people within isolated enclaves (the so-called “Indian reserves”), while dams bypassed their networks of exchange and communication. The aim of this essay is to understand the conflicts between the territorialities of the Atikamekw and that of the Euro-Canadians by focusing on the place of water uses within the geographical imaginations and the land use patterns of these populations.

Climatic signatures in regulated flow regimes across the Central and Eastern United States

Study region: 42 catchments distributed throughout Central and Eastern U.S. Study focus: Enhanced hydroclimatic variability threatens human water uses, and there is an urgent need to quantify projected alterations of flow regimes. This issue has been largely addressed in unregulated rivers through the development of similarity frameworks relating climate properties with the hydrologic response of catchments. However, the impact of damming on climate signatures of river flow regimes is largely unexplored. To fill this gap, this study investigates unregulated streamflows of a selection of sites using a climate-based similarity framework. Then, the corresponding regulated regimes are analyzed to understand how the obtained regime classification is affected by regulation. New hydrological insights for the region: Our results reveal that flood control dams retain but dampen climate signatures of flow regimes, reducing the regional heterogeneity of downstream hydrographs. Conversely, in the study area, urban water supply structures promote climate-independence of river regimes and tend to break the link between climate and river flows, thereby promoting the spatial diversification of the hydrologic response. The observed impact of each specific water use is explained based on quantitative indexes that relates to the regulation capacity of reservoirs and their degree of exploitation. Overall, climatic signatures are still detectable in most regulated streamflows, though climatic control on river regimes is largely concealed by the profound hydrological alterations induced by dams.

Hydrochemical dynamics of water quality for irrigation use and introducing a new water quality index incorporating multivariate statistics

Anthropogenic contamination, including the adaptation of sophisticated agricultural methodologies, has rendered a steep decline in the water and soil quality across the globe. This, in turn, has adversely affected the crop productivity. Hence, to utilize water from a source, a review assessment regarding the water suitability is essential. The present study proposes a new irrigation-based water quality index (IWQI), integrating statistics; hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA), to specific water use. Twenty-three sampling locations were chosen for analyses of 13 water quality parameters from October 2017 to February 2019 from Deepor Beel, Assam, to determine the efficacy of the proposed water quality index. HCA divided the 23 locations into 3 clusters, after which, PCA for each independent cluster provided component scores. These component scores were then used to estimate weights for each parameter for all the 23 locations. The IWQI categorized all the sampling locations as “Very Good”, thereby rendering them fit for irrigation. This was validated through the use of various irrigation parameters, such as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly’s ratio (KR), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), permeability index (PI), and magnesium adsorption ratio (MgR). USSL and Wilcox plots were also considered for the correlation. IWQI was observed to provide an excellent association with all the parameters. Thus, the study would prove fruitful in establishing long-term and extensive management plans to the conservation of natural water resources.

Water and energy use and greenhouse gas emissions for nixtamalised maize masa flour production

Abstract In Mexico, >10 million tons of maize are annually processed into food products, primarily maize tortillas. About 40–46% of commercially-produced tortillas are from nixtamalised maize masa flour (NMMF), which use is increasing throughout the country largely because it simplifies tortilla making process. Nonetheless, little information exists about resource demand and environmental burdens of NMMF production. The present study estimated fresh water and energy inputs to and energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from NMMF manufacturing based on a generic NMMF production process re-constructed using literature data. Unit operations included alkaline pre-cooking, pre-cooked kernels mechanical washing, pre-conditioning, first milling, drying, cooling, sieving, and second milling. Estimated specific water use, energy use, and GHG emissions per ton of NMMF were 3.16 m3, 5.76 GJ, and 334.66 kg-CO2e. Pre-cooked kernels mechanical washing accounted for ∼94% of fresh water supply while drying was responsible for ∼48% of total energy and ∼46% of total GHG. Specific water use was highly sensitive to total solids concentration in pre-cooking suspension and the maize:water ratio in the pre-cooker. Specific energy use and GHG emissions were very sensitive to pre-cooked kernels final moisture content and drying air inlet temperature. Results can help guide future efforts towards improving NMMF industry sustainability.

MANEJO DA AGRICULTURA IRRIGADA: ORIENTAÇÕES TÉCNICAS AOS HORTICULTORES-FEIRANTES

In the area of irrigated agriculture, there is a lot of research and information available, but this does not often reach water users, mainly the small ones. Therefore, this project aimed at providing vegetable growers - open market vendors with technical instructions, in the neighborhood Morada do Sol, in the municipality of Rio Verde, Goias, regarding the management of irrigated agriculture and qualifying the students of the Colleges of Environmental Engineering and Agronomy and preparing them to the job market. Based on management techniques guided by the university students, the horticulturists were able to reduce water and electricity consumption, improve the irrigation efficiency, increase productivity, extend the life of the irrigation system and direct specific water use with quality to the relevant crop, which justifies the social and environmental relevance of the project, as well as the benefits to the society and the gain of knowledge and interaction among the university students.

Water Quality Indices: Challenges and Application Limits in the Literature

Since Horton in 1965, many authors have sought to aggregate different variables characterizing the state of water into a single value called Water Quality Index ( W Q I ). This index is intended to facilitate the operational management of water resources and their allocation for different uses. Detailed and operational description of the main W Q I calculations are here reviewed. The review contains: (1) an historical analysis of the evolution of W Q I calculation methods by looking both at the choice of variables, the methods of weighting and aggregating these variables into a final single value; (2) an illustration of the contradictions observed in the final result when, on the same database, the W Q I is calculated by different methods; (3) the significant progress possible via fuzzy logic to define a W Q I adapted to specific water use.

Osmotic adjustment, stomata morphology and function show contrasting responses to water stress in mesic and hydric grasses under elevated CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration

The physiological response of two species of grasses with C3 and C4 mechanisms syndromes, Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach × Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br) and hydric common reed grass (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud) was examined under ambient (aCO2) and elevated CO2 (eCO2), in combination with water and temperature stress treatments. Under eCO2 and subjected to water and temperature stress, the Napier grass maintained higher daytime leaf water potential (LWP) by reducing transpiration (E) and executing larger osmotic adjustment (OA) at an average of 0.85 MPa compared with 0.42 MPa for common reed; carbon assimilation (PN) was thus higher for the Napier grass. Under aCO2 and low temperature, water stress induced no significant differences in OA between the grasses, but Napier grass still had higher PN than that of common reed. Recovery in LWP and PN following re-watering of water-stressed plants was more rapid in Napier grass than that in the common reed; the former had also higher water-use efficiency due to its low specific water use (water use/leaf area) that was just a fraction (less than 6%) that of the common reed. Exposure of common reed to eCO2 reduced stomata number, but increased it in the Napier grass, especially when subjected to water stress and high temperature. Exposure to eCO2 enhanced OA capacity and E control in Napier grass resulting in superior physiological profile over the common reed subjected to water and heat stress.

Современные и сценарные изменения стока Волги и Дона

Outputs of studies of current and scenario changes of the river runoff in the Volga and the Don basins probable in the current century first third part under influence of the global climate change and social/economic transformations are presented. Long-term phases of low and high annual and seasonal runoff of the Volga and the Don over the period from late XIX and early XXI centuries and the human factors’ influence on them have been found. Their duration varies in the wide range reaching eighty years and more. Noticeable runoff changes are characteristic for contrast phases. Integral scenario assessment of the river runoff changes on the basis of various climatic scenarios and water consumption has been given. Rather wide range of the probable runoff changes in comparison with the current situation has been obtained on the basis of scenarios of social/economic development and specific water use changes. Expected increase of the Volga water content under the influence of climatic factors will facilitate improvement of the water/economic situation at this river, while there is no chance to expect water content in the Don. At the same time there is a probability that the current phase of climate worming is going to come to an end and to be replaced by the long-term cold phase and this might cause the corresponding hydrological changes.

Stochastic modelling of the hydraulic performance of an onsite rainwater harvesting system in Mediterranean climate

The performance of onsite rainwater harvesting (RWH) system in Mediterranean climate was assessed. A stochastic model quantifying the necessary storage, as a function of rainfall (frequency, depth), roof area, residents’ number, specific water use (toilet flushing, laundry) and the required efficiency was developed. Two performance indicators were calculated: water saving efficiency (RSE) – proportion of water used supplied by the RWH system; and rainwater use efficiency (RUE) – proportion of rainwater actually used. The maximum storage capacity and WSE decreased with increasing number of residents for a given roof area, and with an increasing roof area for constant number of residents. For variable storage volume, RUE increased with increasing storage capacity and reached a maximum with an increase in residents’ number and a decrease in the roof area. The model enables to determine WSE and RUE for specific storage volumes or to determine the desired WSE and calculate the necessary storage.

Evaluation of Environmental Performance Based on Proximity to Bat Associated Resource Utilization and Emission Values: A Case Study in a Steel-Making Industry

Best available techniques reference documents (BREFs) that are drawn up as required by the European Union Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) describe best available techniques (BAT) as the most effective, advanced and applicable methods, preventing emissions to the environment and providing efficient use of resources. Iron and steel industry, which causes quite significant amount of resource depletion and waste production, is one of the industries within the scope of IED. In this study; environmental performance of an integrated iron and steel plant in Turkey was evaluated by comparing its resource utilization and emission levels with the BAT associated values. To this end, a comprehensive material flow analysis was conducted, all inputs (energy, raw material, water) and outputs (products, by-products, emissions) involved in all sub-processes in the facility were determined and specific emissions and resource consumptions were calculated. In general, the studied plant’ performance against BAT associated resource utilization and emission values was within the span defined in the BREF. Concerning specific water use and the emission load to the receiving waters, the plant’s performance was pretty good. However, the plant was found to be in need of making additional efforts to reduce its dust emission load and specific energy consumption to achieve the BAT associated values. A total of 74 candidate BAT alternatives were identified and evaluated considering their adaptability to local conditions with regard to environmental benefits and technical practicability and economic feasibility. Among them, 36 alternatives were determined to be applicable BAT options for this plant to improve environmental performance and to reach BAT associated resource utilization and emission values.

Improving productivity and water use efficiency: A case study of farms in England

The idea of Sustainable Intensification comes as a response to the challenge of avoiding resources such as land, water and energy being overexploited while increasing food production for an increasing demand from a growing global population. Sustainable Intensification means that farmers need to simultaneously increase yields and sustainably use limited natural resources, such as water. Within the agricultural sector water has a number of uses including irrigation, spraying, drinking for livestock and washing (vegetables, livestock buildings). In order to achieve Sustainable Intensification measures are needed that enable policy makers and managers to inform them about the relative performance of farms as well as of possible ways to improve such performance. We provide a benchmarking tool to assess water use (relative) efficiency at a farm level, suggest pathways to improve farm level productivity by identifying best practices for reducing excessive use of water for irrigation. Data envelopment analysis techniques including analysis of returns to scale were used to evaluate any excess in agricultural water use of 66 horticulture farms based on different river basin catchments across England. We found that farms in the sample can reduce on average water requirements by 35% to achieve the same output (Gross Margin) when compared to their peers on the frontier. In addition, 47% of the farms operate under increasing returns to scale, indicating that farms will need to develop economies of scale to achieve input cost savings. Regarding the adoption of specific water use efficiency management practices, we found that the use of a decision support tool, recycling water and the installation of trickle/drip/spray lines irrigation system has a positive impact on water use efficiency at a farm level whereas the use of other irrigation systems such as the overhead irrigation system was found to have a negative effect on water use efficiency.

Water Consumption in the Kitchen – A Case Study in Four European Countries

As there is a limited availability of information on the domestic water consumption through kitchen taps, data collected in a study on dishwashing habits in four European countries has been analysed to gather common habits in the water end-use of households. This paper provides empirical data based on water consumption measurements in 81 households. With the help of a simultaneous webcam observation of the kitchen sink, it was possible to assign the metered consumption data to a specific water use, such as cleaning, drinking or cooking. Water end-use has been analysed with this approach at a very deep level. The study shows that there are, in some measure, large country-specific differences in diurnal water use, as well as in the composition of kitchen activities. Furthermore, the research findings indicate that small households use much more water per person and day than bigger households. This is rather important as demographic shifts are causing a decreased average household size - particularly in urban areas - and, therewith, a growing demand. Water-saving measures at the household and individual level should meet this trend. This paper, therefore, also provides information on to what extent particular kitchen tasks are influential for water consumption in the kitchen, respectively, which activities are important to concentrate on for consumer advice regarding water conservation.

Effects of production intensity and production strategies in commercial Atlantic salmon smolt (Salmo salar L.) production on subsequent performance in the early sea stage

A data set from commercial Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) producers on production intensity and production strategies in smolt tanks (N = 63-94) was obtained during 1999-2006. The effects of production intensity on subsequent fish mortality and growth during the early sea phase (90 days) were examined by principal component analysis and subsequent generalized linear model analysis. Levels of accumulated metabolites (CO(2), total ammonia nitrogen and NH(3)), and information provided by producers (production density (kg fish m(3-1)), specific water use (l kg fish(-1) min(-1)) and oxygen drop (mg l(-1)) from tank inlet to tank outlet), were used as predictor variables. In addition, several other welfare relevant variables such as disease history, temperature during freshwater and sea stage; season (S1) or off-season (S0) smolt production; and the use of seawater addition during the freshwater stage were analyzed. No strong intensity effects on mortality or growth were found. CO(2) levels alone (P < 0.001, R(2) = 0.16), and in combination with specific water use (R(2) = 0.20), had the strongest effect on mortality. In both cases, mortality decreased with increasing density. For growth, the intensity model with the most support (R(2) = 0.17) was O(2) drop, density and their interaction effects, resulting in the best growth at low and high intensity, and poorer growth at intermediate levels. Documented viral disease outbreaks (infectious pancreatic necrosis and two cases of pancreas disease) in the sea phase resulted in significantly higher mortalities at 90 days compared with undiagnosed smolt groups, although mortalities were highly variable in both categories. The temperature difference between the freshwater stage and seawater had a small, but significant, effect on growth with the best growth in groups stocked to warmer seawater (P = 0.04, R(2) = 0.06). S0 and S1 smolt groups did not differ significantly in growth, but the mortality was significantly (P = 0.02) higher in S1 groups. Seawater addition as a categorical variable had no significant effects, but when analyzed within the seawater addition group, intermediate salinities (15-25 ppt) gave the best results on growth (p = 0.04, R(2) = 0.15). Production intensity had small explanatory power on subsequent seawater performance in the analyzed smolt groups. If anything, the analysis shows a beneficial effect of intensive production strategies on subsequent performance. Analysis of the various production strategies indicates better survival of S0 compared with S1 smolt groups, improved growth when stocked in seawater warmer than freshwater, and a negative effect of viral disease outbreaks on survival. The results clearly demonstrate the difficulty of extrapolating results from experimental work on fish welfare and production intensity variables to commercial production. On the other hand, the presented results may simply demonstrate that the traditional fish welfare criteria growth and mortality may not suffice to evaluate welfare consequences of suboptimal water quality or production strategies in the aquaculture industry.

Life Cycle Cost Disclosure, Consumer Behavior, and Business Implications

SummaryComprehensive assessments of final consumption have identified “housing” as a major contributor to total environmental impacts. Within this category, electrical‐energy‐using products are important. Do consumers opt for more energy‐efficient household appliances if they are provided with life cycle cost (LCC)—that is, the sum of purchase price and operating cost estimated over the life span of the appliance? And what consequences does LCC disclosure have for business? Physical energy figures shown on appliance labels may be cognitively demanding for consumers, whereas monetary information promises to simplify the decision problem. Despite the rising interest in monetary cost disclosure, its effectiveness relative to physical cost disclosure has not been rigorously evaluated. This research approached the question of effectiveness with an online field experiment for washing machines. Customers of a commercially operating online shop were randomly assigned to two groups. The control group was provided with regular product price information; the treatment group received additional LCC information. A total of 2,065 clicks were recorded and analyzed with multiple regression that controlled for several product characteristics. The evidence suggests that LCC disclosure decreases the mean specific energy use of chosen washing machines by 0.8% (p &lt; 0.01) and their mean specific water use by 0.7% (p &lt; 0.05). As to business implications, LCC disclosure had no effect on the indicator of retail volume, which makes it unattractive for retailers to provide LCC on their own initiative.