Specific Grade Levels Research Articles

Lessons from EEO: Toward a Universal Evolutionary Curriculum

We propose a human-centered evolutionary curriculum based around the three questions: Who am I? Where do I come from? How do I fit in? We base our curriculum on our experiences as an evolutionary biologist/paleontologist (NE) and as a secondary level special education science teacher (GE)—and not least from our joint experience as co-editors-in-chief of this journal. Our proposed curriculum starts and ends with human biology and evolution, linking these themes with topics as diverse as the “tree of life” (systematics), anthropology, Charles Darwin, cultural evolution, ecology, developmental biology, molecular evolution/genetics, paleontology, and plate tectonics. The curriculum is “universal” as it is designed to be taught at all levels, K–16. The curriculum is flexible: “modules” may be expanded and contracted, reordered, or modified to fit specific grade level needs—and the requirements and interests of local curricula and teachers. We further propose that students utilize workbooks from online or printed sources to investigate the local answers to the general questions (e.g., “Who am I?”), while classroom instruction is focused on the larger scale issues outlined in the modules of our curriculum.

Teaching Mathematics Then and Now: Algebra in the Elementary Schools

I have never yet heard of a high school teacher's being satisfied with the first-year pupil's knowledge of common fractions, and the other day a 1. A. [a specific grade level] girl frankly admitted that she could not multiply 12 2/3 by 15 3/4 because she had skipped one grade, had then had algebra and geometry, and the review didn't touch on mixed numbers. Of course, this was not the fault of any teacher, but the fault of a system which is trying to crowd too many things into too small a space. The real efficiency of the schools does not depend upon their being housed in million-dollar buildings, under a well-organized administrative force, excellent equipment, etc.; it depends on two things,—what is taught, and how it is taught; and more especially upon the latter; for every teacher of mathematics knows that a pupil can derive as much permanent good from the study of a few topics or theorems, so presented as to be pleasing to the pupil, or at least interesting, and at the same time make him think, as he can from ten times the amount of material “rammed home” with the sole object of being reproduced at examinations. The policy of standardizing everything by examinations is doing our expensive school system an untold injury; the report of the city superintendent compares the schools according to the number of their pupils who pass the examinations, and the principal warns the teacher that he is rated according to the number of his pupils that pass, and this pressure is passed on to the pupil. Until some method of close class-room observation and supervision is introduced with a view to allowing free rein to a teacher's individuality and originality even at the expense of his pupil's failing the conventional examinations, it is hardly worth while suggesting other changes.

When to Promote Students

JUST FOR a minute, think about how education in this country could be revitalized if we were able to separate promotion in grade from in school. What would happen if students could advance to the next grade based on the acquisition of skills and knowledge, rather than on time in seat--usually about 180 days between the months of August and June? If we adopted such a practice, what kinds of learning opportunities might be possible for high school students who complete their course of study earlier than is possible now? In the same respect, how might we as educators be able to give additional attention to students who need more and resources in order to accommodate their needs and learning styles? Would we reduce the numbers of kids dropping out of school if we were able to avoid the harmful practice of holding students back for a full year when they don't pass all their subjects in a specific grade? For the past 16 years, a small alternative school in Providence, Rhode Island, has been exploring a way to promote students in a manner that could make such things possible. What is most interesting about this experiment is that the decision to advance students to the next grade is based upon criteria that are no more subjective than those used by teachers in more traditional schools throughout the country. What is most significant is that the program used by teachers at the Urban Collaborative Accelerated Program (UCAP) might even be called a system with implications for other schools. UCAP was created in 1989 by several Rhode Island school districts that were seeking to address the unacceptably high numbers of students dropping out of school. Research at that showed that most kids leaving school early were regular education students who fell behind for reasons that usually had nothing to do with academic potential or ability. A review of data also showed that the single most reliable indicator of a student's likelihood of dropping out was retention in grade, usually before high school. If there is any single point that stands out in the research on at-risk students, it is this. In accordance with these findings, UCAP was created with the clear mission of working with students who had repeated at least one grade. In order to provide students with a sense of high status and high expectations, UCAP offered these students an opportunity to complete more than one grade per year and thereby catch up to their age-appropriate grade. UCAP was designed to enroll students entering grade 7 or 8 and to help them move up to grade level and enter high school in grade 9 or 10. Although we were not sure how to make it happen, this, at least, was the plan. We quickly learned that necessity truly is the mother of invention, as we began thinking about how we could advance students in grade according to a new set of rules. And, of course, we wondered just what these rules might be. We began by looking at the curricula of the three cities from which UCAP's students are drawn--Providence, Pawtucket, and Central Falls--and realized that their similarities were far greater than their differences. In the core subjects--math, English, social studies, and science--we did not have much trouble putting together curricula that would present students with the essential content and skills for each grade level. However, if we were to develop a program that was reasonably fair and consistent, we realized that we needed a by which students, parents, and teachers could recognize achievement of a specific grade level in a specific subject. At UCAP, we refer to this currency as criteria, and the way we determine that a student has demonstrated the skills and knowledge to amass enough criteria to move to the next grade level in a subject has evolved each year. At present, teachers have decided that 50 criteria are necessary for promotion to the next grade level. Criteria are awarded for school skills like attendance and completion of homework; for academic skills like improved writing, math, or oral presentation; and for the understanding of big ideas like the scientific method, reasons for the Civil War, and the effects on society of changing demographics as a result of immigration. …

Integrating Horticulture into Middle School Science Curriculums to Satisfy Educational Standards

Louisiana requires schools to address designated educational standards at specific grade levels. Science is a challenging subject at the middle school level. A hands-on approach has been proven more effective than traditional classroom teaching. A program was developed by a cooperative effort between Louisiana Sea Grant and the LSU AgCenter Dept. of Horticulture within the Coastal Roots Nursery Program. Eight lesson plans were designed to meet 16 standards and 275 students in four schools. Pre- and post-test were given to each grade in addition to the Children's Attitude Toward Environment Scale (CATES). Additional pre- and post-test were given to classes not participating in the program. The evaluations tested both short and long term memory on material contained in the lesson plans. The data was analyzed by school, sex, and grade level.

Why Teach Certain Material at Specific Grade Levels?

What criteria and guidelines are used to place content at specific grade levels or to align standards with the curriculum? The authors have searched for years for the answer but keep drawing a blank. NO SOLID basis exists in the research literature for the ways we currently develop, place, and align educational standards in school curricula. If this sounds shocking, it should not. The same holds true for placing subject-matter content at specific grade levels (scope and sequence). Basic content criteria or specific subject-matter criteria, for the most part, are being used to assign content to grade levels. Nevertheless, standards and assessments have come to dominate K-12 curriculum design at national, state, and local levels. And most of these standards come with required assessments that essentially make them mandatory for local school districts. A 15-Year Search We base the statements above on 15 years of searching and researching. Since we retired in 1997 as professors of curriculum and instruction, we have devoted our efforts to researching the topic full time. Before that, dating back to the mid-1980s, we began corresponding and conversing with educators and representatives of educational organizations. Our recent intensive research has included surveys and questionnaires sent to the 50 chief state school officers, to national professional councils and subject-matter associations, to major textbook publishers, to major universities, to educational leaders, and to local school districts throughout the U.S. In all this correspondence and in all our personal interviews with innumerable educators at all levels, one indicated that he or she had studied how content should be placed at specific grade levels. That is, no one seemed to have any idea why something was placed at a specific grade and at the grade above or below. No one seemed to know who made the determination, how it was made, or what criteria were used to make it. We realize that saying not one individual is a very absolute statement, and so we repeat: one respondent indicated that he or she knew or had seriously considered how material was placed at grade levels or what criteria were used in doing so. The usual responses ranged from It's in the textbook, to It's in the curriculum guide, to We've always taught that in that grade. Retired teachers were no more enlightened in this area than those still active. Findings to Date So how has curriculum content actually been placed at various grade levels? How has it been situated in the scope and sequence? The process has been haphazard, arbitrary, and subjective; it has evolved with no organized plan. Certainly, it is that attempts have been made to develop an organized plan. Just check the 38th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education to see some of the extensive work that has been done in this area.1 This yearbook reveals the size and extreme complexity of the task, which no doubt explains why we have found just one (and only one!) subsequent attempt at organizing a plan with specific criteria for placing and sequencing content in the K-12 curriculum. That plan was created by the National Council for the Social Studies.2 Through extensive planning and study, the NCSS developed six scope and sequence models and 24 criteria that a model should meet. Even though one of the models includes all 24 criteria and no clear basis for placing and aligning content in the curriculum is included, the plan certainly furnishes helpful criteria and guidelines for developing K-12 social studies curricula. It is our intent to encourage the development of such criteria and guidelines for using educational standards in school curricula of the 21st century. It is difficult to cite examples of content placed at particular grade levels for particular reasons. …

Students' self-reported substance use by grade level and gender.

Over 900 students in the rural northwest at the fourth, sixth, eighth, and tenth grade levels were surveyed for alcohol and drug use. The survey instrument measured self-reported usage of seventeen substances. The descriptive statistical results are reported by gender as well as grade-level usage rates. Discussion includes targeting drug prevention programs for specific grade and gender levels based upon the results.

Nutrition and Food Attitudes of School Children in Central Texas

LEARNING OUTCOME: To describe nutrition and food-related attitudes of central Texas children in grades 4, 6–8, and 11.These data are from an initiative supported by the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention and USDA to develop and test potential survey instruments that could be used to monitor school-based nutrition efforts. The instrument was developed using focus groups of 740 children. This report is from 4–11th grade children (n=392) in 12 schools in central Texas who volunteered to provide self-report information regarding their dietary intake habits, attitudes, and knowledge. Teachers administered the 20 minute survey during class. Over 80% of students in middle and high school appear to be confused about how to interpret dietary recommendations, although over 50% agree it is important for students their age to understand these recommendations. While 98% of 4th graders believe they eat healthful foods, this proportion declines as students get older: 50% of 6th & 7th graders, 14% of 8th graders and 28% of 11th graders agree that they eat healthful foods. Students feel that nutrition is important: the majority of 4th, 6 & 7th, 8th, and 11th graders agree that dietary habits can influence the chances of developing heart disease or cancer (78%, 89%, 94%, 94%, respectively) and over 2/3 of 4th, 8th, and 11th graders believe that skipping meals can affect their ability to succeed in class. Over 85% of all groups surveyed agreed that they like to try new foods. Obtaining information about student attitudes about nutrition and food-related behaviors can help to focus intervention efforts and tailor programs to specific grade levels.

Students' self-reported substance use by grade level and gender.

Over 900 students in the rural northwest at the fourth, sixth, eighth, and tenth grade levels were surveyed for alcohol and drug use. The survey instrument measured self-reported usage of seventeen substances. The descriptive statistical results are reported by gender as well as grade-level usage rates. Discussion includes targeting drug prevention programs for specific grade and gender levels based upon the results.

Stepping Stones To Mathematical Understanding

Educators tend to think of children's books as being used primarily in language arts, reading, and, perhaps, science and social studies and limited to specific grade levels. However, the scope should be broadened to include literature as a stepping stone to mathematical understanding. Books that primary-grade students enjoy can facilitate mathematical understanding in older students, and book on higher reading level can be read to younger students for the same reason. Children's literature presents a natural way to connect language and mathematics.

An Examination of the Concurrent Validity of the Basic Academic Skills Samples (BASS)

This study is a concurrent validation of the Basic Academic Skills Samples (BASS) in which the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests and the Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT) were used as criterion measures. A total of 413 students in grades 1 through 6 were administered the BASS, the Gates-MacGinitie, and the MAT. Computed across grade levels, correlations between relevant BASS subtests and standardized achievement tests were.85 for reading,.79 for math,.81 for spelling, and.61 for written expression. In all instances correlations for specific grade levels were lower than those computed across grade levels, but there were no identifiable correlational patterns across grade levels. Depending on the particular subtests employed, there was between 42% and 62% overlap in the students who fell into the bottom 15% of a specific BASS subtest and the corresponding achievement test. Although the relationships among the BASS, the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, and the Metropolitan Achievement Test were reasonably strong it appeared that the BASS and the standardized measures did not identify identical populations of at-risk students.

A survey of state-level contacts for school psychology regarding retention/promotion practices: Are we evaluating the risks and benefits?

In 1987, state-level contacts were surveyed concerning retention/promotion policies and the role of the school psychologist in retention/promotion decisions within their states. The intent of the survey was to ascertain specific state policies, compile information concerning the number of students retained at specific grade levels, and compare the individual views of state-level contacts/consultants on the actual and ideal roles of the school psychologist. Results of the survey are presented and implications are discussed.

What's Going on…

Family math. The EQUALS staff at the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, has developed a program of classes to involve parents in their children's future schooling and jobs. Information about careers and the importance of mathematics to future jobs and schooling is woven throughout the classes. Mathematics topics are drawn from measurement, probability and statistics, patterns and functions, geometry, arithmetic, and logical thinking, and activities are designed to supplement the classroom curriculum. Classes are given for specific grade levels, spanning kindergarten through general mathematics. A hands-on approach, used with emphases on problem solving and the enjoyment of mathematics, includes instructions for use at home. FAMILY MATH is funded by the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education. A dissemination workshop will train new leaders in the fall of 1984. For further information contact Virginia Thompson and Ruth Cossey, c/o EQUALS, Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720.

Variability in Age and Experience among Blind Students Using Basal Reading Materials

This study was designed to identify various problems encountered by children who read braille and use conventional basal reading programs transcribed into that medium. It was hoped that this information could be used to improve methods of teaching blind children to read and to help design more suitable reading materials for them. The results showed educationally significant variability in chronological age, years in school and grade level for blind children using basal reader materials designed for sighted readers at specific grade levels.

A multivariate analysis of task dimensions related to science concept learning difficulties in primary school children

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to determine if achievement on a series of problems was affected by differences among task values within a dimension. Values within inference pattern, goal object, and percept dimensions were studied. One hundred and sixty primary school children participated in the study. An analysis of the results of their achievement on the tasks indicate that task solution is affected by the dimension values used in this study. The results of the study suggest that a multidimensional scale of task dimension values should be constructed in order to assist the curriculum specialist in the construction and sequencing of concept tasks for specific grade levels.