Mushroom Species Research Articles

Comparison of fragrance and flavor components in non-psilocybin and psilocybin mushrooms using vacuum-assisted headspace high-capacity solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Vacuum-assisted headspace high capacity solid-phase microextraction (Vac-HS-HC-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to compare the volatile compounds that make up the volatile and semi-volatile components of five psilocybin mushrooms (Psilocybe cubensis), as well as three non-psilocybin mushroom species. Using an untargeted analysis, common volatiles detected consisted of acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and hydrocarbons. The initial comparison of Vac-HS-HC-SPME and HS-HC-SPME conditions showed 2 times increase in compound response as well as the detection of 8 additional compounds undetected by HS-HC-SPME. Compounds unique to psilocybin mushrooms were 2-methylbutanal, valeraldehyde, benzaldehyde, 3-octen-2-one, 2-methyl-dodecane, and 2‑butyl‑2-octenal. Compounds unique to non-psilocybin mushrooms were 2-methyl-pyrazine, 2,3-butanediol, butyric acid, butyrolactone, benzyl alcohol, 2-pyrrolidinone, and estragole. The commonly shared compound, 1-octen-3-ol, was shown to have a higher compound response among the psilocybin mushroom species.

Systematic review of macrofungi biodiversity in Eastern Africa countryside: uses, distribution, and conservation checklists

Abstract. Mushroom biodiversity covers some indispensable non-timber forest products that are wide-spread in Africa, although these resources are currently underutilized, underdeveloped, and left to face the vagaries of climate change and human activities unmanaged. The mushrooms of Eastern Africa have barely been identified or examined for their potential to better the livelihood of the inhabitants. This review of published-online-only literature was carried out to systematically document this biodiversity and its potentials. There were 135 edible mushrooms, 9 edible+medicine mushrooms, and 59 species with no ascribed uses out of 205 species altogether in Eastern Africa. Two mushrooms were identified as poisonous. There were 32 key edible mushrooms in Eastern Africa based on their usage. A tally of mushrooms species (based on country where they were sighted) showed that Ethiopia accounted for 96 species, Tanzania (75), Burundi (37), Rwanda (24), Kenya (18), and Uganda (6) while no information was available from the rest of the countries in the region. The most common genera of mushrooms included Termitomyces, Russula, Pleurotus, Marasmius, Lactarius, Coprinus, Cantharellus, Armillaria, Amanita, and Agaricus. While the most popular species (based on consumption by more locations/tribes) were Amanita zambiana, Hypholoma fasciculare (could be poisonous), Pleurotus cystidiosus, Polyporus tenuiculus, Termitomyces letestui, and Termitomyces striatus. However, it was observed that these tribes or locations were often only within a few countries. Therefore, truly regional mushrooms included Schizophyllum commune (could be poisonous), Suillus luteus, Termitomyces clypeatus, Termitomyces striatus, and Termitomyces microcarpus based on their being found in at least three or more countries. Fungi biodiversity conservation is inadequate in the region.

Assessment of utilized species of macrofungi and evaluation of mycochemical composition and bioactive properties of Phellinus robiniae collected from Benguet Province, Philippines

Macrofungi have long been used as food, medicine and other purposes. Several studies have been conducted on various macrofungi, however little is known about the wild useful macrofungi from the mountainous areas in the Philippines. Therefore, this study was conducted to document the diversity of wild utilized macrofungi in Kabayan, Benguet to come up with the species listing of wild utilized macrofungi in the area and assessment of the mycochemical composition, anti-oxidant activity and cytotoxic property of the basidiocarps of Phellinus robiniae. Seven wild utilized macrofungi were documented, all were identified morphologically, while four were subjected through molecular techniques to confirm identity; of the 7 mushrooms identified, five are edible (Hypholoma capnoides, Lentinula lateritia, Tremella fuciformis, Tremella mesenterica and Albatrellus confluens) and two are medicinal (Heterobasidion annosum and Phellinus robiniae). The identified mushrooms were: Hypholoma capnoides 92% (MF511082), Lentinula lateritia 99% (AF031192), Tremella fuciformis 94% (KY105682), Albatrellus confluens, Heterobasidion annosum 97% (KU645332), Tremella mesenterica and Phellinus robiniae. Assessment of bioactive properties of P. robiniae showed that the basidiocarp contains eleven bio-active secondary metabolites (essential oils, phenols, sugars, triterpenes, coumarines, anthraquinones, anthrones, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids and steroids). This study also revealed that P. robiniae exhibited anti-oxidant activity with a DPPH radical scavenging activity of 34.59% and a total phenolic content of 49.42 mg GAE/g. Moreover, the ethanolic extract of P. robiniae showed an LC50 of 328.05 ppm which is considered as moderately toxic. This study provides baseline information on the utilized species of wild mushrooms that are found in the area.

EFFECT OF ORGANIC SUPPLEMENT ON OYSTER MUSHROOM SPAWN PRODUCTION


 
 
 The cultivation of mushrooms is a biotechnological intervention for the conversion of various lignocellulose agro-wastes into proteins. Jharkhand and its neighbourhood are potential area for oyster mushroom production due to its favourable agro-climate, plenty of agro-wastes and Hypsizygus ulmarius good awareness and liking for mushroom consumption. They also provide other much needed nutrients like Essential Amino Acids (EAA), minerals and vitamins and keep us fit and healthy. Oyster mushroom cultivation in India is very popular among the farmers due to its simple growing technique and the availability of its good number of species adapted to wide range of temperature - from tropical to temperate. Pleurotus florida exhibits adaptability to perform well in sub-tropical areas and hence it is more popular in Chotanagpur Plateau in general and Ranchi District in particular. In the current study, therefore, P. florida was selected as a test species. Experiments on the species of Oyster mushroom were designed with the sole objective to reduce the input-cost of their cultivation by promoting the use of cheaper recycled agro-wastes like vermi-compost for spawn media preparation. The study concluded that supplemented spawn medium like Wheat (50%) + Vermi Compost (50%) and Wheat (75%) + Vermi Compost (25%) gave better result as well as its performance is at par with 100% wheat for the spawn production of P. florida and. So this can be recommended to spawn production laboratories for the use of this methodology for reducing the cost of spawn production. Vermi-compost, which is a waste-recycled material, has been identified as a potential substitute for cereal grains. Their replacement (partial or total) with Vermi-compost has opened the doors to make mushroom farming a complete recycling process, and also to achieve organic farming of mushrooms a reality sooner than later. Therefore, more such studies on other edible domesticated mushroom species need to be made in future.
 
 

Evaluation of the nutritive value and metal content of prevalent edible mushrooms in Bangladesh

Mushroom cultivation in Bangladesh has been on the rise, however, their nutrient and heavy metal content is not well investigated. Herein, prevalent cultivars and strains of five mushroom species (Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus sajor-caju, Pleurotus citrinopileatus, Auricularia auricula and Ganoderma lucidum) were analyzed for their nutritional values (total ash, lipid, crude fiber, protein and carbohydrates) as well as metal concentrations using standard methods. This study was conducted at the Laboratory of the Biochemistry Department at Sher-e Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, from January to December 2022. The proximate composition of mushrooms varied from 2.67–11.57%, 2.05-3.81%, 15.52-22.61%, 6.1-12.71% and 46.01-57.85% for total ash, lipid, crude fiber, protein and carbohydrates, respectively. The highest values of Fe, Mn, Zn, P, Ca, Mg, K, S and N were 315.87, 19.14, 267.96, 2.92, 1.07, 0.44, 4.62, 0.78 and 3.06 μg/g, respectively. Remarkably, the highest amounts of heavy metals, Pb (5.65 μg/g) and Cd (0.22 μg/g) were found in Pleurotus citrinopileatus, while Cr (3.22 μg/g) and Ni (1.65 μg/g) were found in a variety of Pleurotus ostreatus. The findings revealed that heavy metal concentrations in two mushroom varieties exceeded the maximum permissible limit recommended by WHO/FAO. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive analysis comparing the nutritional value and metal content of popular mushroom species of Bangladesh.

Impact of Marketing Tactics on the Performance of Oyster Mushroom Cultivation among Small-Scale Farmers: A Study in Mumias Division, Mumias Sub-County, Kenya

Mushrooms, as macro-fungi capable of thriving above and below ground, are a rich source of nutrients and can be successfully cultivated within well-ventilated structures using organic substrates. China is the global leader in Oyster mushroom production, accounting for 80% of the total output, with Africa contributing relatively little. In Kenya, two mushroom species are grown: Button and Oyster, with a combined annual production of 500 tons and an additional 150 tons imported. Button mushrooms dominate production at 95%, while Oyster mushrooms represent only 5% of the total output. Among farmers, the majority (80%) focus on cultivating Oyster mushrooms, while the remaining 20% prefer Button mushrooms. Despite the availability of suitable substrates and the preference of growers, the performance of Oyster mushroom cultivation has remained suboptimal. Consequently, the impact of marketing strategies on Oyster mushroom performance has remained uncertain. This study aimed to investigate the influence of marketing strategies employed by farmers. The research was grounded in Innovation theory and guided by a conceptual framework. A descriptive research design was adopted, with a study population of 300 individuals, and a random sample of 30 respondents was selected using cluster random sampling. Data were collected through questionnaires and interview guides and analyzed using SPSS. The results revealed that 56.7% of the farmers sold mushrooms in rural open markets, while 43.3% supplied their produce to hotels and restaurants. Furthermore, 53.3% of farmers engaged in personal selling, whereas 46.7% relied on vendors for distribution. In terms of sales, 76.7% marketed mushrooms through their respective groups, while 6.7% used retailers. Regarding packaging, 96.7% of farmers utilized polythene bags, with a small proportion (3.3%) opting for bottles. On pricing, 70% sold 50gm packages for Ksh 100, while the remaining 30% offered 1kg packages priced at Kshs 2000. A significant majority (83.3%) of farmers sold processed mushrooms, while 16.7% focused on fresh mushrooms. In conclusion, the study found that existing marketing strategies had a limited impact on the performance of Oyster mushroom cultivation. The study recommends intensive training, the development of incentive schemes, the construction of cold storage facilities, and the formation of mushroom cooperatives to enhance the industry's performance. The findings of this research have implications for policymakers, mushroom growers, scholars, and researchers in the field. Keywords: Mushroom, Oyster, production, marketing strategy

Fluorometric assay of laccase in mushroom extracts and comparisons with absorption spectrophotometry

Laccase is a lignin-degrading enzyme that is expected to move industrial applications to a greener form of biotechnology. Here, we used 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazolin-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) as a mediator and N-benzoyl leucomethylene blue (BLMB) as a substrate to develop a fluorometric assay that we used to measure laccase activity in mushroom extracts. We then compared this novel approach to conventional absorption spectrophotometry. With this novel approach, laccase oxidizes ABTS to produce ABTS radicals that show an absorption maximum at 415 nm. The ABTS radicals oxidize BLMB to generate fluorescent methylene blue that is measured by fluorometry while absorption spectrophotometry directly measures the absorbance of the ABTS radicals at 415 nm. Under the optimal conditions, the fluorometric assay showed a linear calibration curve with limits of detection and quantification of 1.0 × 10-2 mg mL-1 and 3.2 × 10-2 mg mL-1, respectively, and those values are 1.4-fold lower than the results using conventional absorption spectrophotometry to measure ABTS radicals. Laccase activity of extracts from species of mushrooms that include eryngii and shiitake were successfully determined via both fluorometry and absorption spectrophotometry. The eryngii extract showed the highest level of activity, which was followed by the shiitake extract, but laccase activity was not observed in the shimeji extract.

A Proposal to Study the Safety and Efficacy of Psilocybe cubensis in Preclinical and Clinical Studies as a Therapeutic Alternative for Major Depressive Disorder

ABSTRACTThe pharmacological treatment of depression consists of taking antidepressant drugs for prolonged periods; its modest therapeutic effect can often be associated with significant adverse effects, while its discontinuation can lead to relapses. Psilocybin is today a novel and breakthrough therapy for major depression. It is a natural alkaloid in Psilocybe mushrooms, which are endemic to Mexico. Research on a larger scale is lacking in various populations, including the Mexican people. This proposal contemplates the experimental design of a preclinical (toxicity and pharmacological evaluation of an extract in mice) and clinical study by including the chemical analysis of a species of Psilocybe cubensis mushroom to characterize its main constituents. The clinical study will consider the safety evaluation by exploring tolerated doses of Psilocybe cubensis by measuring pharmacokinetic parameters after oral administration in healthy adults and an open trial on a sample of patients with major depressive disorder to assess the safety and efficacy of fully characterized Psilocybe cubensis in a two-single doses treatment, (with assisted psychotherapy), compared with the traditional care model at the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz in Mexico City. This report presents the design of a research project with preclinical and clinical experimental components.

KERAGAMAN JAMUR DI KAWASAN HUTAN WANGKUNG KECAMATAN NDOSO KABUPATEN MANGGARAI BARAT

Mushroomdiversity in the Wangkung forest area, Ndoso district, West Manggarai Regency. This research is a survey research that aims to observe and find out the diversity of mushroom species in the Wangkung Forest Area, Ndoso discrict, West Manggarai Regency. The method used in this research is the quandrant transect method. The area or research location used is 500 meters long and 50 meters wide which is divided into 5 stations. The size of the transect is 2x2 meters, totaling 5 transect and will be randomly distributed at each stations. The results of this study showed that there were five types of fungi, namely: Auricularia polytricha as many as 104 species, Lentinus strigosus as many as 74 species, Trametes versicolor as many as 70 species, Pycnoporus sanguineus as many as 70 species and Lentinus sp as many as 37 species. Based on the results of the calculations of the diversity index of 1,533 which indicates the category of the diversity index is moderate . While the evenness index value is 0,952 which indicates the distributions category of the typeof community structure is stable or good. The average value of the wealth index is 3.869 which indicates the medium type of wealth. While at station 1 is dominate d by Auricularia polytricha and Pycnoporus sanguineus with a dominance index value of 0.070. At station 2 the dominance index value is 0.111 which is dominated by Auricularia polytricha which shows the most dominant fungus at stations 2. Meanwhile at station 3 is dominated by Auricularia polytricha with a dominance index value of 0.099. While at stations 4 is dominated by Auricularia polytricha with a dominance index value of 0.114 . Meanwhile, at station 5, Lentinus strigosus is dominated by a dominance index value of 0.081.

Conspectus of traditional ethnomycological insights pertaining to wild mushrooms of South Kashmir, India

BackgroundMushrooms have been in use as food and ethnomedicines since ancient times. Ethnomycological information has been drawn from aboriginal and common masses in different regions of the world including India. However, no such ethnomycological survey has been conducted in the present study area. Therefore, present study was carried out to draw the ethnomycological knowledge about the usage of mushrooms for various purposes held by local populace and to evaluate this drawn knowledge for various ethnomycological parameters. MethodsDifferent areas of South Kashmir were surveyed to document this declining traditional knowledge source. A total of 200 respondents including traditional healers (hakims), mushroom hunters, tribals and local people encompassing all the age groups were interviewed. Ethnomycological data sets were evaluated for various parameters and were subjected to statistical analysis. ResultsA total of 32 species were found to be used as food and ethnomedicines against diabetes, cardiovascular complications, respiratory problems, skin disorders, etc. It was also revealed that the ethnomycological information is equally distributed across the gender, however maximum ethnomycological information was found to be held by the elder age group. ConclusionsEthnomedicinal uses of 32 mushroom species were documented which need further exploration for other properties that could be used for human welfare on robust scale. The knowledge compiled during the study can be passed on to young generations of the local inhabitants and forest dwellers and could serve to acquaint them about this declining traditional knowledge source.

Amanitins: The Most Poisonous Molecules of the Fungal World.

Among the toxic metabolites of the fungal world, those that, due to their strong biological effect, can seriously (even fatally) damage the life processes of humans (and certain groups of animals) stand out. Amatoxin-containing mushrooms and the poisonings caused by them stand out from the higher fungi, the mushrooms. There are already historical data and records about such poisonings, but scientific research on the responsible molecules began in the middle of the last century. The goals of this review work are as follows: presentation of the cosmopolitan mushroom species that produce amanitins (which are known from certain genera of four mushroom families), an overview of the chemical structure and specific properties of amanitins, a summary of the analytical methods applicable to them, a presentation of the "medical history" of poisonings, and a summary of the therapeutic methods used so far. The main responsible molecules (the amanitins) are bicyclic octapeptides, whose structure is characterized by an outer loop and an inner loop (bridge). It follows from the unusual properties of amanitins, especially their extreme stability (against heat, the acidic pH of the medium, and their resistance to human, and animal, digestive enzymes), that they are absorbed almost without hindrance and quickly transported to our vital organs. Adding to the problems is that accidental consumption causes no noticeable symptoms for a few hours (or even 24-36 h) after consumption, but the toxins already damage the metabolism of the target organs and the synthesis of nucleic acid and proteins. The biochemical catastrophe of the cells causes irreversible structural changes, which lead to necrotic damage (in the liver and kidneys) and death. The scientific topicality of the review is due to the recent publication of new data on the probable antidote molecule (ICR: indocyanine green) against amanitins. Further research can provide a new foundation for the therapeutic treatment of poisonings, and the toxicological situation, which currently still poses a deadly threat, could even be tamed into a controllable problem. We also draw attention to the review conclusions, as well as the mycological and social tasks related to amanitin poisonings (prevention of poisonings).

Metal Content in Caps and Stalks of Edible Mushrooms: Health Benefits and Risk Evaluation.

Mushrooms are a good source of protein and phenolic compounds which provides health benefits for humans. The purpose of this study was to compare the content of eight metals, protein, and total phenolics (TPC) of 5 different species (Agaricus bisporus-white and brown mushrooms, Agaricus cupreobrunneus, Auricularia cornea, Hypsizgus tesselatus, and Pleurotus eryngii species-complex) of edible mushrooms available on the Romanian market. Agaricus bisporus and Agaricus cupreobrunneus were purchased and cultivated in Romania and the other species were cultivated in other countries (Turkey and China). The metal content determined by graphite atomic absorption spectrometry (GTAAS) varied in the order Cu > Pb > Ni > Fe > Cr > Mn > Co > Cd. Almost all the samples contained a greater quantity of metals in the stalk than in the cap. In addition, the levels of toxic metals were low. The protein content of analyzed samples ranged from 0.0926 to 0.2743%, the highest value being observed in Pleurotus eryngii species-complex mushroom. TPC of extracts increased over time but there was a variability in the concentration for each mushroom species (0.25-12.25mg GAE/g). The investigated mushroom species possess no health risk and may be potential nutritional supplements for human diets due to their phenolic compounds, protein, and mineral content.

Multiplex TaqMan real-time PCR assay for high-throughput identification of highly toxic mushroom species-induced foodborne poisoning

The highly toxic Amanita species, Russula subnigricans, and Lepiota brunneoincarnata are the major mushroom types causing mushroom poisoning fatalities worldwide, which seriously endanger human life and health. However, the detection method for the simultaneous identification of these highly toxic mushroom types is scarce. In this study, a one-tube multiplex TaqMan real-time PCR assay was established for simultaneous detection of the highly toxic mushroom species from three genera. The developed assay could simultaneously detect at least 6 highly toxic Amanita species and specially identify R. subnigricans and L. brunneoincarnata without the cross-reaction in 37 mushroom species. The method detection limits were 0.1 pg/μL, 1 pg/μL, and 0.1 pg/μL DNA for highly toxic Amanita species, R. subnigricans, and L. brunneoincarnata with high amplification efficiency. Moreover, the multiplex real-time PCR assay was successfully applied to the cooked mushroom. The developed method is expected to become an effective tool for high-throughput identification of foodborne poisoning associated with these highly toxic mushroom species.

Levels and Health Risk Assessment of Inorganic Arsenic, Methylmercury, and Heavy Metals in Edible Mushrooms Collected from Online Supermarket in China.

Chromium (Cr), total arsenic (As), inorganic arsenic (iAs), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), methylmercury (MeHg), and lead (Pb) were analyzed in in Agaricus blazei, Tricholoma matsutake, Pholiota nameko, agrocybe aegirit, Boletus edulis, Auricularia auricula, and Lentinus edodes collected from online supermarket in China from 2015 to 2017. The order of mean concentrations for the five heavy metals in edible mushrooms was As > Cd > Cr > Pb > Hg. No positive correlation was found between total As and iAs, nor between total Hg and MeHg. The contents of iAs were at a low level except for A. blazei samples. The contents of MeHg were at a low level in all test mushroom samples. And Cr, Cd, and Pb pollution were common problems in the test mushroom samples. The comprehensive factor pollution index was between 0.569 (A. auricula) and 3.056 (B. edulis). The THQ values for the five heavy metals from P. nameko, A. auricula, A. aegirit, and L. edodes samples were less than 1. The hazard index (HI) values of A. blazei, T. matsutake, and B. edulis samples for adults and children were greater than 1, indicating significant health hazard to the adults and children consumers. The cancer risk (CR) values for iAs ranged from 3.82 × 10- 6 (T. matsutake) to 8.61 × 10- 5 (A. blazei), indicating no potential carcinogenic risk to the consumers. The order for carcinogenic risk of each edible mushroom species was A. blazei > L. edodes > P. nameko > A. aegirit > A. auricula > B. edulis > T. matsutake.

Effects of Mineral Composition of Different Wood Wastes in Ibadan on Proximate Composition of Lentinus Squarrosulus (Mont.)

Lentinus squarrosulu (Mont.) is one of the cultivated indigenous edible mushrooms that are available in Nigeria. Recently, there has been growing crave to crop wild edible mushroom species that have potential economic values. Mushrooms can be an alternative source of protein especially for commoners in the society. Hence, the objective of this paper is to evaluate the effect of mineral composition of five wood wastes- Triplochiton scleroxylon, Cordia milleni, Vitellaria paradoxa, Pouteria altissima and Anogeissus leiocarpa different wood wastes on L. squarrosulus (Edible Mushroom) cultivation for their consequences on the growth, yield and proximate analysis. Data obtained reveal Carbon/Nitrogen ratio of 11.59, composition of Magnesium (0.035 mg), Potassium (0.053 mEq/l), Manganese (0.0013 mg), Copper (0.00050 g/m3), Iron (0.00275 mol/L), Phosphorus (0.027 mmol/L), Organic carbon (32.10 mg/L C), Organic matter (55.3 t/ha) and total nitrogen (2.77 mg/L) contributed greatly to the high crude protein, fats and ash contents of mushroom cultivated on T. Scleroxylon. However, insignificant contents of sodium (0.2 mg), Calcium (0.2 mmol/L) and Magnesium (0.013 mg) in Pouteria altissima led to the general inadequate performance of L. squarrosulus in yields. The percentage fresh mean weight of L. squarrosulus ranged from 9.13 g – 19.00 g. The highest value was produced by T. scleroxylon followed by P. altissima, V. paradoxa, C. milleni while A. leiocarpa gave the least.

Entoloma sicoense, a new species in the subgenus Cyanula (Entolomataceae)

Entoloma sicoense, a bluish gray mushroom species belonging to section Poliopodes, is described as a new addition to the subgenus Cyanula. This study presents the phylogeny, taxonomy, and ecological significance of Entoloma sicoense, which inhabits mossy broad-leaved forests in the eastern North Atlantic region. The discovery of this new species expands our understanding of fungal diversity and highlights the ecological significance of the subgenus Cyanula in Serra de Sicó. Entoloma sicoense exhibits specific morphological characteristics, such as slate gray basidiomata, a smooth concolorous stipe, and a sterile gill edge rich in brilliant granules. This research underscores the importance of documenting and describing new species in Serra de Sico´ for comprehensive cataloging, conservation efforts, and further exploration of its ecological role within the local ecosystem. The new species is presented with morphological, illustrated description as well as molecular work and comparison with similar species.

Diversity and domestication of mushroom species in the Atewa forest reserve and Bia Biosphere, Ghana

Edible mushrooms commonly found in forest reserves are important for food security but they are underutilized in Ghana. The Atewa forest reserve in the Eastern Region and Bia Biosphere in the Western Region are among the largest forest reserves in Ghana. However, human activities including illegal mining activities pose a threat to the existence of the rich mushroom diversity within these forests. The objective of this study, therefore, was to collect, characterize and domesticate mushrooms from the Atewa forest reserve and the Bia Biosphere. Wild mushroom samples were randomly photographed, collected, dried and stored. Edible and wild mushrooms were characterized morphologically and compared with literature. A total of 86 mushroom samples (comprising 45 from the Atewa forest reserve and 41 from the Bia Biosphere) were collected and identified. The two forest reserves contained a rich diversity of wild mushrooms namely: Cookeina speciosa, Marasmiellua inoderma, Auricularia cornea, Daldina concentrica, Pleurotus sp. Polypores. Cultivated Auricularia auricula strain AUAT recorded the highest ash content (16.70%) while cultivated Ganoderma sp. strain GLB recorded the lowest ash content (5.12%). On the other hand, cultivated Pleurotus ostreatus strain POB recorded the highest fat content of 19.88% and cultivated Pleurotus saju-caju strain PSCAT gave the least value of 12.02%. Cultivated Auricularia auricula strain AUAT again recorded the highest protein value of 33.38% while wild Ganoderma sp. Strain GLB had the least protein value. A total carbohydrate level of 64.22% was observed in cultivated Ganderma sp. strain GLB. The highest oxalate content of 30.93 mg/100 g was recorded in cultivated Pleurotus ostreatus strain EM1 with cultivated Auricularia auricula strain AUAT being the least value of 4.73 mg. A high phytate value of 149.35 mg was observed in cultivated Auricularia auricula strain AUAT and cultivated Pleurotus saju-caju strain PLAT showed the lowest value of 31.60 mg/100 g. The present findings provide considerable data on fungal diversification, conservation and domestication as well as a reference point for future studies.

Nutritional Assessment of Lactarius drassinus and L. controversus from the Cold Desert Region of the Northwest Himalayas for Their Potential as Food Supplements.

Kargil is a cold desert with hostile ecological conditions such as low temperature and precipitation, as well as difficult terrains. However, several wild mushrooms thrive well under such an extreme environment. Despite their abundance, the chemical composition of indigenous mushrooms has not been explored. This study aimed to assess the potential of two wild edible mushrooms from Kargil, Lactarius drassinus and Lactarius controversus, as food supplements by evaluating their nutritional and nutraceutical properties. Nutritional attributes such as total protein, available carbohydrates, soluble sugars, and vitamins were found to be high in the mushroom species. Furthermore, high mineral accumulation and relatively lower antinutrient concentrations resulted in higher bioavailabilities of Zn, Fe, Ca, and Mg. Gas-chromatography-mass-spectrometry-based metabolite profiling revealed that although the two mushroom species showed similar metabolite compositions, their relative concentrations differed. Sugars were the predominant compounds identified in both the species, with sugar alcohols being the major contributor. The second most abundant class of compound in L. drassinus was amino acids, with 5-oxoproline as the major contributor. On the other hand, fatty acids were the second most abundant compounds in L. controversus, with high oleic and linoleic acid concentrations. In the ultra-performance-liquid-chromatography-based quantification of phenolic compounds, chlorogenic acid was found to be highest in in terms of its concentration in both the mushrooms studied, followed by quercetin dihydrate and gallic acid in L. drassinus and L. controversus, respectively. Moreover, high antioxidant activities attributable to their high phenol, flavonoid, and carotenoid concentrations were observed. Overall, the two mushrooms offer well-balanced sources of nutritional and nutraceutical compounds, making them healthy foods.

Classification of Poisonous and Edible Mushrooms with Optimized Classification Algorithms

Within the scope of this study, it is aimed to classify the mushroom species consumed as a staple food. For this purpose, 8124 mushroom data with 22 different mushroom feature information were used. 5686 of these data were used for training and 2438 for testing. In the study, poisonous and edible mushroom species were classified by random forest, decision tree, and logistic regression classification methods. The parameters used in the random forest and decision tree classification algorithms used in the study were optimized with the GridSearchCV optimization method. With the random forest algorithm, the highest precision, recall, and F1 score values are 0.93, 0.98, and 0.95, respectively. When these values are examined on a class basis, the highest distinctiveness results were obtained in the poisonous class. In the edible class, the highest performance results were measured as 0.97, 0.92, and 0.95 for precision, recall, and F1 score values, respectively. With the decision Tree algorithm, the highest precision, recall, and F1 score values are 0.98, 0.98, and 0.92, respectively. The highest precision, recall, and F1 score values of the best poisonous class are 0.90, 0.98, and 0.92, respectively. The best performance results of the edible class were obtained with the highest precision, recall, and F1 score values of 0.98, 0.89, and 0.90, respectively. The average accuracy rate was 0.9028 with the Logistic Regression algorithm, and the precision, recall, and F1 score values of the poisonous class were obtained as 0.86, 0.97, and 0.91, respectively. Precision, recall, and F1 score values of the Edible class were obtained as 0.96, 0.83, and 0.89, respectively.

Four Novel Species and Two New Records of Boletes from India.

Repeated macrofungal explorations, followed by thorough examination of species through morphology and molecular phylogeny, have made it clear that European and American names of wild mushrooms were inadvertently misapplied quite often to Asian lookalikes by mycologists/taxonomists in the past. Therefore, in order to reveal this mushroom treasure, in recent years, taxonomical research on wild mushrooms has been intensified in Asian countries, including India, by undertaking a combined approach of morpho-taxonomy and multigene molecular phylogeny. Boletoid mushrooms (Boletaceae) are no exception. While working on boletoid mushrooms of the Indian Himalayas, authors recently came across six interesting species of boletoid mushrooms. In the present communication, four novel species, namely Leccinellum binderi, Cyanoboletus paurianus, Xerocomus uttarakhandae, and Xerocomellus himalayanus, are established based on morphology and molecular phylogenetic estimations. Moreover, Cyanoboletus macroporus and Xerocomus fraternus are also reported here for the first time in India.