Zoo Species Research Articles

Factors Influencing the Sponsoring of Animals in Slovak Zoos.

Simple SummaryTo achieve conservation goals with ex situ programs, zoos have two alternatives: government funding and private donations. By using published data from 2018 on the amount of money received by zoos through adoption programs (if any), we investigated the factors influencing donations in all Slovak zoos. Generalized linear mixed models were applied throughout statistical analyses. Although the majority of animal species in the zoos included in this study had low a conservation status, a few others, like amphibians, were rarely listed as threatened species. In general, vertebrates received more funding than invertebrates, and mammals were the preferred taxa by private contributors. Mammals were sponsored more frequently than non-mammal species, except for reptiles. We submit that zoo managers could concentrate their efforts on the breeding of threatened animals to support their reintroduction to the wild and to enhance people’s awareness of these animal species.Anthropogenic disturbance causes biodiversity loss, and consequently the captive conservation (ex situ) of threatened animals may be an effective strategy in protecting species. We used estimated body mass, phylogenetic closeness with humans, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) conservation status, and species attractiveness scores, to examine the factors influencing the adoption likelihood of a species in all Slovak zoos. In general, vertebrates received more funding than invertebrates, and mammals were the preferred taxa by private contributors. In terms of funding, we propose that the perception of mammals as phylogenetically close to humans, and attractiveness factor, contribute to an advantage over less attractive and phylogenetically distant species. Conservation status also contributed to the amount of donations; however, the magnitude of these relationships was weak when compared to the effect of animal taxa. These results suggest that Slovak zoos might be more successful in raising donations by breeding threatened species, and raising public awareness about these animal species. Displaying popular, flagship species of non-mammal taxa may increase interest among the public as well, and may translate into a significant growth in the amount of donations.

Use of a simplified non-invasive technic to monitor fecal progesterone metabolites and reproduction function in several zoo species: Efficacy of mini VIDAS® automate (bioMérieux)

Developing the zoos' ability to assess the reproductive status of the individuals they house is essential to improve the husbandry and management of these species. The use of non-invasive techniques such as fecal hormone analysis has been proven to be a simple and effective way to achieve this. Designed by bioMérieux, mini VIDAS® instrument is used in human and veterinary medicine to evaluate different endocrinological parameters, including serum or plasma progesterone. This study evaluates VIDAS® Progesterone (PRG) assay's efficacy to monitor fecal progestagens using a simple sample extraction protocol adapted to the zoo environment. We compared (1) VIDAS® PRG fecal profiles with established assays specifically designed for fecal progestagens analysis at the VetmedUni (Vienna, Austria) for okapis (Okapia johnstoni), greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) and hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) (2) VIDAS® PRG fecal profiles with VIDAS® PRG serum profiles for African elephants (Loxodonta Africana), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Spearman mean correlations were: 0.6748 for African elephants (n = 2 animals), 0.7969 for giant anteater (n = 1 animal), 0.7926 for okapis (n = 2 animals), 0.6072 for greater one-horned rhinoceros (n = 4 animals), 0.6062 for giraffes (n = 4 animals) and 0.5740 for hippopotamus (n = 2 animals). Fecal progestagens analysis revealed estrous cycles in several species: 12.5 ± 0.5 weeks for African elephants (n = 2 cycles), 15.3 ± 1.1 days for okapis (n = 6 cycles), 44 ± 2.1 days for greater one-horned rhinoceros (n = 4 cycles) and 15.5 ± 0.5 days for giraffes (n = 4 cycles). We observed pregnancies in a giant anteater, an okapi and a hippopotamus. We observed a strong positive Spearman correlation (r > 0.60) for individuals exhibiting estrous cycles. These first results indicate that the mini VIDAS® can be used for monitoring of the reproductive status of non-domesticated species and can be a useful tool for the reproductive management through fecal progesterone analysis. A simple extraction protocol was suitable for sample preparation of fecal progesterone metabolite analysis. Further studies using a larger number of individuals per species at different reproductive stages could confirm the relevance of mini VIDAS® in the zoo community.

Analgesic Efficacy of Tramadol and Morphine in White's Tree Frogs (Litoria caerulea)

Published data are sparse regarding the recognition of clinically relevant pain and appropriate analgesia in amphibians. The amphibian analgesia literature has primarily focused on nociceptive pathways in a single species, the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens). The objective of the current study was to assess the analgesic efficacy and safety of oral tramadol and subcutaneous morphine in a commonly maintained zoo and pet species, White's tree frog (Litoria caerulea). We hypothesized that tramadol and morphine would provide dose-dependent antinociception, as measured by significant increases in hindlimb withdrawal latency after exposure to a noxious thermal stimulus. Two randomized, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies were performed, with tramadol (n = 12) administered at 15, 25, and 40 mg/kg PO and morphine (n = 12) administered at 5 and 10 mg/kg SC. Hindlimb withdrawal latency was measured for a maximum of 72 h. No adverse side effects or signs of sedation were observed with any dose or drug evaluated. No significant difference in withdrawal latency was detected between the control and either tramadol or morphine. These negative results were surprising, suggesting that the thermal nociceptive model may not be biologically relevant in amphibian species.

Developing a Reliable Welfare Assessment Tool for Captive Hibernatory Bear Species.

Simple SummaryThere are few welfare assessments that have been designed for captive zoo-housed species, including bears. Ideally, welfare assessment tools should be tested for reliability, feasibility and validity. This study assessed the reliability of a composite bear welfare assessment tool using keeper ratings. Two species of hibernating bears were assessed (brown and American black bears) across multiple zoos by multiple keepers. Keepers were asked to perform three assessments on the same bear. The welfare assessment tool was found to be reliable among multiple keepers assessing the same bears as well as each individual keeper performing multiple assessments over time. Further analysis showed good reliability, or unanimous ratings for each item within the assessment. This composite bear welfare assessment tool is a reliable and practical way for keepers to monitor the welfare of captive bears.Animal welfare assessments are essential for the identification of welfare hazards and benchmarking of welfare improvements, though welfare assessments for zoo species are lacking. Bears are commonly housed in zoos but currently no composite welfare assessment tool exists for captive bears. This study describes the development of such a tool for use across hibernating bear species. A draft tool was developed using indicators derived from the literature and a modified Delphi analysis with an international group of bear keepers. A total of 18 bear keepers from 12 zoos were recruited to trial the tool on 24 brown bears and American black bears. The participating keepers assessed their bears three times across a period of nine days. Intraclass correlation coefficients analysis was used to analyse inter-, intra-rater and item reliability. The inter- and intra-rater reliability showed good to excellent levels of agreement (>0.7, p < 0.05). Item reliability was also assessed and showed good to excellent levels of agreement (>0.75, p < 0.05). The resulting bear welfare assessment is an important step in identifying and understanding challenges to bear welfare in captivity.

Social Behaviour in Zoo Bachelor Groups: A Case Study of Related South American Fur Seals.

Simple SummaryAppropriate management of social groups is one of the greatest challenges that face zoos and aquaria worldwide. All-male social groups provide an opportunity for facilities to house surplus males in groups which optimise their welfare whilst they are being retained for future use in breeding programmes. Here, we investigated social behaviour in a relatively poorly studied species, the South American fur seal (SAFS). Four individuals housed in a related group were studied over a 6-month period. The results showed that their social relationships changed over time, although the individuals always engaged in more positive than negative interactions. We recommend establishing baseline social behaviour profiles of individuals to enable long-term monitoring of SAFS social groups, as has been recommended in other species. This will enable enhanced understanding of South American fur seals and will contribute to the development of evidence-based social management guidelines for this species.Appropriate management of social groups is one of the greatest challenges that face zoos and aquaria worldwide. To facilitate breeding programmes, particularly in polygynous species, there is a need to house surplus males in bachelor groups, yet for pinnipeds, the social impact of this management strategy is unknown. The aim of this research was to enhance understanding of sociality in South American fur seals (SAFSs), with a particular focus on social dynamics in a related bachelor group, and consider implications for evidence-based management of this species in zoos. The subjects were four related male seals housed at Bristol Zoo Gardens. Social interaction and nearest neighbour data were collected between February and July 2019. Individuals engaged in both positive and negative social interactions. Positive interactions were more frequent than negative interactions, and no excessive negative interactions were observed. Temporal dynamics were observed in social relationships, and negative interactions did not increase with the onset of the breeding season. Reciprocity in dyadic relationships was variable across the study months, and nearest neighbours were not necessarily reflective of social partners. This research highlights the importance of longitudinal monitoring of social relationships and establishment of baseline social behaviour profiles to support evidence-based species management. We advocate that this research is extended, to further develop our understanding of SAFS social needs within zoo environments, to understand the differences between single-sex and mixed-sex groups and to identify the degree to which the extensive research conducted in other polygynous species (e.g., gorillas) is applicable in the social management of South American fur seals moving forwards.

Daily activity profile of the golden mantella in the "Froggotron"-A replicated behavioral monitoring system for amphibians.

Research on threatened species in zoos can provide vital information to inform conservation planning and implementation in the field. This is particularly important for rare and cryptic species with behavior patterns that are difficult to observe in the wild. The Critically Endangered golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca) is an iconic, endemic frog confined to mid-altitude subhumid forest in Moramanga District, Madagascar. Ecological and behavioral data for this highly threatened species are sparse, and conservation work will need to be informed by both in situ and ex situ research on behavior and habitat preferences. This study utilized environmental information gathered in the field to design a system where behavior and microhabitat use could be measured in captivity. Using replicated climatically controlled chambers (the "Froggotrons"), we analysed the 24-h activity profile of the golden mantella in relation to temperature and humidity. Golden mantellas showed a bimodal pattern of activity during the day with much less activity during the night. Frogs kept at warmer temperatures (20-25°C) were more active than those kept under cooler conditions (16-19°C). However, the bimodal pattern was retained under the different temperatures, although the second peak occurred slightly earlier under warmer conditions. Most activity was observed when humidity levels were above 85%, although less than half of the mantellas were active outside leaf microhabitats during peak periods. These findings can inform ongoing field surveys through determining the optimum times of day to either capture or count golden mantellas for further conservation actions.

Development of polymorphic microsatellite markers for the Trichoglossus haematodus and cross-species amplification in Trichoglossus moluccanus.

Trichoglossus haematodus is the most popular parrots globally and one of the most bred species in Korea's zoos. However, despite its popularity, there are limited studies on the population genetics of this species. In this study, 10 polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed for T. haematodus. The number of alleles ranged from 6 to 9 (mean 7.9). Null alleles were present in two loci (TH-07 and TH-08). The observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.4444 to 1.0000 (mean 0.7000). One locus (TH-08) indicated a significant deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium after Bonferroni correction (p < 0.005). The mean inbreeding coefficient (FIS) of the 10 loci was positive, suggesting that there is inbreeding in the population. Since the polymorphism information content (PIC) values were more than 0.7 in all loci, all markers developed in this study were classified as informative. The parentage exclusion probabilities considering all loci were higher than 0.99 in all three cases (P1, P2, and P3). The cross-species amplification of the 10 markers was tested in T. moluccanus, a close relative species of T. haematodus. These markers were also informative for T. moluccanus with PIC values higher than 0.7 in all loci. Additionally, the parentage exclusion probabilities (P1, P2 and P3) for T. moluccanus were above 0.99. However, due to the small number of T. haematodus and T. moluccanus investigated in this study, the 10 microsatellite markers should be analyzed with more individuals of these two species in future studies. The markers developed in this study might be helpful for investigations of genetic diversity and parentage analysis of T. haematodus and T. moluccanus.

Chopped and dispersed food enhances foraging and reduces stress-related behaviours in captive white-naped mangabeys (Cercocebus lunulatus)

The white-naped mangabey is an endangered and rare zoo species, yet little is known concerning their welfare in captivity. The assessment of welfare should incorporate a net balance of negative and positive welfare behavioural indicators. These behaviours, and thus welfare, can be affected by the way food is presented based on its distribution, clumped or dispersed, and its size, chopped or whole. This study investigated the effect of food presentation on time-budget behaviours (i.e. forage, activity, inactivity, allogroom, self-groom, play) and stress-related measures (i.e., diarrhoea, aggression, self-directed behaviours), in four crossed-over test conditions of food distribution. The group-living mangabeys of Rotterdam Zoo were provided with vegetables that differed in distribution and size: clumped-chopped, dispersed-whole, dispersed-chopped, and clumped-whole. Mangabeys spent least time being inactive and subordinates and juveniles spent most time foraging during the dispersed-chopped condition, while the reversed was found during the clumped-whole condition. In addition, mangabeys stole food more often and engaged in less self-directed behaviours during dispersed-chopped, compared with dispersed-whole. In contrast, food distribution and size did not affect aggression, play, activity, self-grooming and diarrhoea. Consistent with most of the literature, chopped, dispersed items appeared to be the best, whereas presenting whole food items appeared to be the worst for welfare. In conclusion, presenting food in a distributed and chopped instead of whole manner is suggested to improve welfare of zoo-housed mangabeys.

Monitoring of bluetongue virus in zoo animals in Spain, 2007–2019

Bluetongue (BT) is an emerging and re-emerging communicable vector-borne disease of animal health concern. A serosurvey was performed to assess exposure to BT virus (BTV) in zoo animals in Spain and to determine the dynamics of seropositivity in longitudinally sampled individuals during the study period. Serum samples were collected from 241 zoo animals belonging to 71 different species in five urban zoos (A-E) in Spain between 2007 and 2019. Twenty-four of these animals were longitudinally surveyed at three of the sampled zoos (zoos B, C and E) during the study period. Anti-BTV antibodies were found in 46 (19.1%; 95% CI: 14.1-24.1) of the 241 captive animals analysed by commercial ELISA. A virus neutralization test confirmed specific antibodies against BTV-1 and BTV-4 in 25 (10.7%; 95% CI: 6.7-14.6) and five (3.0%; 95% CI: 0.3-4.0) animals, respectively. Two of the 24 longitudinally sampled individuals (one African elephant (Loxodanta africana) and one aoudad (Ammotragus lervia)) showed anti-BTV antibodies at all samplings, whereas seroconversions were detected in one mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) in 2016, and one Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in 2019. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first large-scale survey on BTV conducted in both artiodactyl and non-artiodactyl zoo species worldwide. The results confirm BTV exposure in urban zoo parks in Spain, which could be of animal health and conservation concern. Circulation of BTV was detected in yearling animals in years when there were no reports of BTV outbreaks in livestock. Surveillance in artiodactyl and non-artiodactyl zoo species could be a valuable tool for epidemiological monitoring of BTV.

Validating the use of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite analysis to assess the adrenocortical activity of the zoo-housed Sichuan takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana).

With limited information known about the zoo-housed Sichuan takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana), there is a need to gain more knowledge about their basic physiology to be able to better assess their well-being. Our goal was to develop noninvasive methods to evaluate stress physiology in theSichuan takins housed under human care. The objectives were: (1) validate the use of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analysis to monitor adrenocortical activity and (2) determine the relationship between FGM concentrations and changes in various factors including environmental conditions, reproductive hormones, and social factors. Three (one male and two females) adult Sichuan takins were included in the study from Lincoln Park Zoo. A cortisol enzyme immunoassay was used to analyze FGMfrom samples that were collected 2-4 times per week. FGMwas biochemically validated in the laboratory and biologically validated using pregnancy and parturition. Results showed that 1 day after birth one female had a more than a six-fold increase in FGM. A positive relationship (p < .05) was observed between FGM and temperature for twoof the threetakins. Finally, FGM values tended to increase during times when aggression (p = .09) and reproductive (p = .08) behaviors were observed. In conclusion, environmental, reproductive, and behavioral factors could affect adrenocortical activity in zoo-housed Sichuan takins; therefore, these methods can be used to assist in the management and conservation of this threatened species both in zoos and potentially in the wild.

Insights into Activity of Zoo Housed Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) during Periods of Limited Staff and Visitor Presence, a Focus on Resting Behaviour

Historically, behaviour of zoo housed species during hours of limited staff and visitor presence has been poorly studied, largely due to the lack of appropriate technology. Advances in digital monitoring equipment and facility design by European elephant holders has given researchers scope to accurately evaluate behaviour for this species over 24 hrs. Various behavioural indicators of welfare have now been identified for zoo housed elephants; however the relationship between resting behaviour and welfare experience has been an area highlighted to require additional research. Lying rest is a potential positive welfare indicator for this species, with studies suggesting that engagement in lying rest can be used to monitor both psychological and physiological wellbeing. Throughout this work we aim to give insights into the behaviour of individual Asian elephants at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, specifically between the hours of 16:00 and 10:00. In addition to presenting the activity budgets of our study individuals during these times, we explore individual engagement in resting behaviour. Furthermore, we evaluate the social associations of our study group during rest. We provide evidence that unrelated individuals can form strong associations with conspecifics when resting and show that life history is a factor to consider when evaluating social compatibility between group members. Finally, we demonstrate the positive role that calves and juvenile individuals can play in facilitating meaningful associations between group members during rest. Our study highlights the importance of evaluating behaviour during understudied time periods in order to obtain a holistic view of individual welfare, further emphasising the importance of adopting an evidence-based approach to management for this species in zoos.

Understanding impacts of zoo visitors: Quantifying behavioural changes of two popular zoo species during COVID-19 closures

Visitors are normally a prominent and constant feature in a zoo animals’ environment with more than 700 million people visiting zoos and aquariums worldwide, annually. Animal-visitor interactions can be enriching and stimulating and are now considered within the Five Domains of animal welfare assessment. Zoo closures as a result of COVID-19 provided a unique opportunity to monitor the impact of abrupt and prolonged removal of visitors on two popular zoo species. Data were collected at four facilities (n = 3 slender-tailed meerkats, n = 1 African penguin) during COVID-19 zoo closures and up to one month following reopening to the public. Meerkats showed increased positive social interactions, increased alert behaviours, and reduced environmental interactions in the first month post-opening, as compared to closure periods. They also used more of their enclosures during periods of closure and spent longer than would be expected in zones furthest from visitor viewing areas when facilities reopened. African penguins showed no behavioural change between open and closure periods. Enclosure usage during both observation periods was relatively even and no differences were observed in enclosure use between open and closure periods. These results will enable an advanced understanding of the impact that people have on the behaviour of zoo animals, which has ramifications for animals used in close encounters and other ‘visitor experiences’ in the future. Understanding relationships between animals and people is applicable in all managed animal settings. The results from this study are of practical use in managing visitor access to animals moving forwards, including enclosure location and design, to ensure a positive visitor experience that does not negatively impact animal behaviour.

Tourists' perceptions of non‐human species in zoos: An animal rights perspective

AbstractThis qualitative study aims to reveal tourists' perceptions of non‐human species in zoos while adopting an animal rights perspective. Study findings indicate that tourists are concerned about the well‐being of animals that are kept in zoos and conceive that animals in zoos are distressed and “unhappy”. Yet, they value the outcome of their zoo experience and interaction with animals, thus continue to visit zoos for leisure/educational purposes. The study's findings enable the conceptualisation of zoos, their societal impact, tourists' concerns about animals kept in zoos and the need of tourism stakeholders to transform zoos.

Effects of a combined enrichment intervention on the behavioural and physiological welfare of captive Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica)

The endangered Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) is currently distributed as a single wild population of 670 individuals and ∼400 captive animals globally. Although the captive lions are major hope for the species’ long-term conservation through repatriation, their welfare status and management practises need research attention. To this end, we tested the efficacy of feeding, sensory and manipulable enrichment interventions on the welfare of Asiatic lions at the conservation breeding centre of Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, Gujarat. We adopted a holistic approach by measuring physiological and behavioural responses of 35 captive Asiatic lions, divided into control (N = 16) and test (N = 19) groups. The test subjects approached feeding devices first and used manipulable devices for longer duration. Manipulable devices were used homogenously with two significant time peaks, but sensory devices were used sporadically throughout the day with no discernible peak usage. The control subjects remained unchanged in all welfare parameters compared to their pre-treatment levels. However, post-enrichment behavioural assessments showed higher behaviour diversity (95 % increase from the baseline period), reduced enclosure zone bias (40.25 % reduction) and aberrant repetitive behaviours (80.68 %) in test samples. Similarly, faecal corticosterone measures showed lower stress levels in test samples (58 % decrease), confirming significant improvement in all welfare indices than control groups. These results have universal applicability to assess welfare indices of other captive species in Indian zoos. We hope that the results will encourage zoo managers and regulatory agencies to improve animal welfare practices.

Patterns of wounding in mixed-sex social groups of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Long-term, multi-institutional assessments have become a reliable tool for evaluating patterns of wounding in zoo-living primates, with results informing on best practices for species-specific care protocols and population management strategies. For western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) there has been no detailed reports focused on mixed-sex groups, the most common social group type for this species in zoos. In this study, wounding data were collected over 26 months for 131 gorillas living in 26 social groups at 18 zoos and analyzed in relation to age, sex, and group demographic variables. Adult females received wounds at significantly higher rates than adult males suggesting sexual dimorphism and the disparate social roles of male and female gorillas may differentially affect wounding rates. Group size was associated with increased wounding in adult gorillas, however, wounding rates overall were low in frequency and severity. Wound locations were not randomly located, with wounds to the trunk accounting for 24 % of all wounds. These data provide useful insights that may help inform and improve management of gorillas in mixed-sex groups. Specifically, understanding that vulnerability to wounding may be more prevalent in females compared to males can inform strategies aimed at improving husbandry, health, and welfare and have a positive impact on population management practices for the species.

Научное обоснование содержания европейского дикого кролика (Oryctolagus cuniculus) на основе анализа зоопарков и питомников ЕАРАЗА (2004–2018 гг.)

The European wild rabbit – Oryctolagus cuniculus – is classified as Near Threatened (NT), which includes near-threatened species. This article presents an analysis of the dynamics of the number of individuals of the studied species in zoos and nurseries belonging to the Eurasian Regional Association of Zoos and Aquariums (EARAZA). The list of cities that have a European wild rabbit in their zoos is given. The sex and age ratio of individuals of the studied species in the interval from 2004 to 2018 is indicated. According to the results of the analysis, a number of arguments are given in favor of the expediency of breeding the European wild rabbit in zoos and nurseries of EARAZA.

Amino Acid Nutrition for Optimum Growth, Development, Reproduction, and Health of Zoo Animals.

Proteins are large polymers of amino acids (AAs) linked via peptide bonds, and major components for thegrowth and development of tissues in zoo animals (including mammals, birds, and fish). The proteinogenic AAs are alanine, arginine, aspartate, asparagine, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and valine. Except for glycine, they are all present in the L-isoform. Some carnivores may also need taurine (a nonproteinogenic AA) in their diet. Adequate dietary intakes of AAs are necessary for thegrowth, development, reproduction, health and longevity of zoo animals. Extensive research has established dietary nutrient requirements for humans, domestic livestock and companion animals. However, this is not true for many exotic or endangeredspecies found in zoos due to the obstacles that accompany working with these species. Information on diets and nutrient profiles of free-ranging animals is needed. Even with adequate dietary intake of crude protein, dietary AAs may still be unbalanced, which can lead to nutrition-related diseases and disorders commonly observed in captive zoo species, such as dilated cardiomyopathy, urolithiasis, gut dysbiosis, and hormonal imbalances. There are differences in AA metabolism among carnivores, herbivores and omnivores. It is imperative to consider these idiosyncrasies when formulating diets based on established nutritional requirements of domestic species. With optimal health, populations of zoo animals will have a vastly greater chance of thriving in captivity. For endangered species especially, maintaining stable captive populations is crucial for conservation. Thus, adequate provision of AAs in diets plays a crucial role in the management, sustainability and expansion of healthy zoo animals.

Isolation and characterization of low pathogenic H7N7 avian influenza virus from a red-crowned crane in a zoo in South Korea

BackgroundSouth Korea conducts annual national surveillance programs to detect avian influenza (AI) in domestic poultry, live bird markets, and wild birds. In March 2017, an AIV was isolated from fecal samples in an outdoor aviary flight cage in a zoo in Korea.ResultsNucleotide sequencing identified the isolate as low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) H7N7, and DNA barcoding analysis identified the host species as red-crowned crane. This isolate was designated A/red-crowned crane/Korea/H1026/2017 (H7N7). Genetic analysis and gene constellation analysis revealed that A/red-crowned crane/Korea/H1026/2017 (H7N7) showed high similarity with four H7N7 LPAIVs isolated from wild bird habitats in Seoul and Gyeonggi in early 2017.ConclusionsConsidering the genetic similarity and similar collection dates of the viruses, and the fact that zoo bird cages are vulnerable to AIV, it is likely that fecal contamination from wild birds might have introduced LPAIV H7N7 into the red-crowned crane at the zoo. Therefore, our results emphasize that enhanced biosecurity measures should be employed during the wild bird migration season, and that continued surveillance should be undertaken to prevent potential threats to avian species in zoos and to humans.

Amphibians in zoos: a global approach on distribution patterns of threatened amphibians in zoological collections

In 2008, the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria and Amphibian Ark proclaimed the ‘Year of the Frog’. In the present study, based on analyses conducted in April and May 2017, the selection of amphibian species in zoos was investigated almost 10 years after that campaign. Given the huge diversity of amphibians, their representation in zoological collections was still poor, with only around 7% (540 species) of all extant amphibian species kept in zoos (76% anurans, 22% caudates and 2% caecilians). Only 10·4% of the amphibians in zoos were kept in sufficient numbers in different collections, while a further 10·1% were represented by a single specimen. Only 4·3% of the amphibian species that were recommended by the Amphibian Ark for ex situ conservation were kept in zoos. Moreover, 44·3% of the globally threatened amphibians in zoos were each held by a single zoo only. With some exceptions, reproduction success of amphibians in zoos was low and reported for only 10% of amphibian species in two or more institutions within one year. In the present study, a richness analysis provided further insights into the focus areas of amphibians in zoological collections. Large numbers of zoos in North America and Europe maintained amphibian collections of global importance, although the distribution of these institutions did not match the natural distribution of target species that were most urgently in need of ex situ rescue. Investing in conservation‐breeding programmes and cooperation with local partners will help to increase the number of threatened amphibian taxa in zoos. Although the global zoo community’s response to the amphibian decline is slow, it still holds the capability to procure a shift from common to threatened taxa. By providing their expertise and facilities for the keeping and (conservation) breeding of threatened amphibian taxa, zoos can play a key role in amphibian conservation in terms of the ‘One Plan approach’.

Zoo animals as "proxy species"for threatened sister taxa: Defining a novel form of species surrogacy.

The vast number of species threatened with extinction, coupled with the limited resources to support them, results in the need to prioritize species for conservation action. Similarly, zoo collection managers must prioritize species for inclusion at their institutions, which are also limited by space and resources. While conservation status is one factor considered by zoos, weight is also given to qualitative features and practical considerations when evaluating the fit of different species. Resultantly, the species prioritized by zoos have limited overlap with those prioritized for conservation. Several recent studies have highlighted that the majority of species maintained in zoos are ranked globally as least concern. Given the centrality of conservation to the modern mission of zoos, there is value in identifying clear connections between non-threatened species in zoos and the roles they can play in conservation. Surrogate species approaches have been used in many instances to facilitate indirect conservation, and several distinctive types of surrogacy have been formally described. The aim of this study is to define a novel form of species surrogacy (i.e., "proxy species") that draws utility from non-threatened species maintained in zoos. A proxy species is here defined as a non-threatened species managed ex situ that can be used as a flagship for a related threatened species that is morphologically similar but not otherwise represented in zoos. The benefits of this approach and opportunities for its application are here reviewed. This concept will provide opportunities to enhance the value of pre-existing zoo collections, and ultimately, support conservation objectives.