Special Education Resource Research Articles

Science for Your Students?

Stonewall Elementary had adopted a co-teaching model for special education services in which one special educator was assigned to the primary grades and another to the intermediate level. Each grade had one designated class for inclusion of students formerly educated in resource rooms. Bill was looking forward to this new arrangement that would allow him to co-teach in fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade classes. This was especially exciting for him because the school district had recently adopted a new science program, and he thought co-teaching would offer him the chance to teach science. Until now, Bill had focused primarily on reading, writing, math, and social skills in his special education resource room. Occasionally, his students would bring in science homework or unfinished assignments to ask for his help. Bill felt motivated to think of multiple ways to present science concepts. He enjoyed hearing his students declare, "I get it!" The first disappointment was at the planning meeting with Alice, the fourth-grade teacher. Alice gave an overview of her schedule for the week, including the time it would be best for Bill to be in her class. She proposed 9:00 a.m. to 10:30 a.m., when she needed his help to divide the class into ability-level groups for reading and math. Bill responded, "I've been looking forward to the chance to teach science." Alice looked puzzled. She said, "Your students are so far behind in basic skills. That's where they need the extra help. They can learn science when they can read." Bill was too surprised to react. Carl, the fifth-grade teacher, never seemed to have time to co-plan with Bill. Carl assured Bill that anytime he showed up, the special kids needed help. Bill said, "I would like to be in the class when you teach science." "That would be 1:00 p.m. every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday," Carl responded. Bill was ready when it was time for fifth-grade science. Carl had a lesson prepared with a hands-on activity for most of the class, but he provided some worksheets for the "lower" students to complete at their desks. Carl turned to Bill and commented proudly, "I found these for your students. With fill-in-the-blanks and pictures to color, they're basic enough for your kids to understand, although they could still use your help. And whatever you do, keep Larry from disturbing the rest of the class." Feeling devastated but determined not to strike out a third time, Bill approached Jennifer, the sixth-grade teacher, and shared his disappointments. Although she also had assumed Bill would be focusing on basic skills with the special students, she was willing to rethink their co-teaching arrangement. They looked at the science materials at the next lesson. Bill wanted to teach and had great ideas about ways to bring the concepts alive. Jennifer was a little reluctant to let go of the control of her class, but she was willing to give him at least one chance. The next day at science time, Bill taught an activity-based lesson with a follow-up writing assignment. Jennifer was interested to see that the special education students were really involved in the lesson. She also observed Bill's awareness of individuals. He seemed to know which students were keeping up and when he needed to change pace or modify his approach. After the lesson, Jennifer appeared to be disturbed. She quietly commented to Bill, "I learned a lot from observing that lesson. Now, should I thank you or be mad at you for invalidating my assumptions about teaching science to students with special needs?"

Are Perinatal Factors Predictive of Optimal School Age Outcome in the ELBW Infant? † 1241

The incidence of major developmental disabilities in the extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infant has remained stable despite dramatic improvement in survival. A subset of these children consistently overcome the odds, are neurologically intact, and demonstrate normal cognitive and academic skills. The purpose of this study is to identify perinatal predictors of optimal school age outcome in a sample of ELBW children. The study group consists of 257 surviving ELBW infants (<1001 grams) admitted to Vanderbilt University Hospital July 1982-July 1989. Information regarding presence of vision or hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and school difficulty(need for special education or remedial resources after meeting school system eligibility criteria) at 7-9 yrs is available for 214 of 257 children (83%). The survivors were divided into three mutually exclusive subgroups: Group 1(n=66) is children with optimal outcome, no disability or school difficulty; Group 2 (n=71) is children with school difficulty, but no major difficulty; Group 3 (n=77) is children with any major disability. Data regardingobstetric risk (prenatal care, maternal smoking, presentation and mode of delivery, antenatal steroid administration, amnionitis, fetal heart rate tracing), neonatal course (birth weight, gestation, BPD, IVH, length of stay) and sociodemographics (race, gender, maternal age, education, marital status, social risk score) were analyzed by ANOVA and chi squares in relation to school age outcome for each of the three groups. The ELBW children with major developmental disability (Group 3) had significantly lower birth weight, shorter gestation, longer hospitalization, and more severe IVH than the remaining two thirds of the survivors in Groups 1 and 2 (p<0.05). However the children with optimal school age outcome (Group 1) and the children experiencing school difficulty (Group 2) did not differ significantly from each other on any of the obstetric, neonatal, or sociodemographic variables listed above, with the exception of gender. In our sample, the ELBW child spared major disability still has a 50% risk of experiencing school difficulty regardless of perinatal factors. If optimal outcome cannot be predicted by perinatal factors, then further research is important to identify mechanisms to reduce morbidity and promote optimal cognitive outcome in the rapidly growing population of ELBW survivors.

Introduction to Special Issue on Teachers' Perceptions: Issues Related to the Instruction of Students with Learning Disabilities

The advent of the Regular Education Initiative (Will, 1986) and the resulting escalation of inclusion programs throughout the United States have led to increased numbers of students with learning disabilities (LD) in general education settings full-time. This trend has not gone without debate. Critics of a dual special education/general education system argue that traditional special education resource rooms and pull-out programs have failed to promote successful learning for students with special needs and have only served to alienate these students from interaction with their general education peers (Lipsky & Gartner, 1987; Reynolds, Wang, & Walberg, 1987; Stainback & Stainback, 1984). Advocates of a more cautious approach to inclusion submit that wholesale implementation of inclusion of students with disabilities in general education settings is premature without a substantive research base and adequate preparation of general education and special education teachers to assume new roles and responsibilities (Hallahan, Keller, McKinney, Lloyd, & Bryan, 1988; Keogh, 1988). In the midst of this controversy, we have been engaged in a series of investigations related to the instruction of students with LD in general education settings. Our research (over a nineyear period) has been conducted primarily in Dade County (Florida) Public Schools. Dade County is the fourth largest school district in the nation, with a large range of cultural and linguistic diversity represented in its student population. The classrooms we observe typically have more than 30 students, and include many students whose language in the home is different from that of school, students whose poverty influences their ability to learn, and who often have significant physical and cognitive problems that interfere with learning. Our descriptive research has sensitized us to the challenges of classroom teachers as they attempt to meet the needs of all students, including students with LD. Specifically, we have learned that:

Neuropsychological and functional outcomes of very low birth weight infants

Advances in perinatal and neonatal management have resulted in a significant increase in the survival of fragile extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants > 1,000 g at birth. The evaluation and reporting of the outcome of these infants aids in assessing the efficacy of interventions, provides data to aid in policy decisions, and provides critical information for parents and primary care providers. Comprehensive assessment of multiple domains including neurologic/neurosensory, developmental-cognitive, visual perceptual, speech/language, motor, functional skills for daily living, and Kindergarten readiness permit a total view of the child within the context of the family. Survival of VLBW infants < 800 g has steadily improved from 0% (1943 to 1945) to 49% to 70% (1994 to 1995). Rates of cerebral palsy, mental retardation, blindness, and deafness have remained stable in the 1980s and 1990s. There is evidence, however, that the percent of functional limitations may be increasing. A requirement for Special Education Resources among VLBW infants remains high at 44% to 56%. As increasing numbers of infants at the limits of viability survive, the medical community must remain vigilant in its surveillance and advocate both humanistically and scientifically for comprehensive strategies that optimize long-term functional, academic, and family outcomes.

School performance of ELBW children: a controlled study.

This paper examines the prevalence of learning difficulty in reading, spelling, mathematics and writing and the prevalence of attention deficit disorder (ADD) in extremely low-birthweight (ELBW) children at school compared to their peers. Parents of 87 eligible ELBW children completed an educational questionnaire and questionnaire for ADD. Teachers of the ELBW children completed a detailed educational and ADD questionnaire for the study child and two control children in the same class, matched for age and nearest in birth date to the study child. Parents reported that 4% of the ELBW children born between 1977 and 1986 were in a special education unit, 46% received remedial help and 21% repeated a grade. Teacher assessment of six aspects of reading and spelling and five aspects of mathematics and writing skills indicated that the ELBW children experienced marked problems in all areas compared to control children and were approximately 3 times more likely to be delayed by more than a year in all areas. Prevalence of ADD was not increased in the ELBW children compared to the control group, though males in both groups had a higher prevalence of symptoms. Early intervention and special education resources must be available for ELBW children attending school.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOME AND EDUCATIONAL ADJUSTMENT TO FIRST GRADE OF ECMO-TREATED NEONATES. † 1684

One hundred and fifty-two 5 year-old ECMO survivors and 53 normal controls were given a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery and kindergarten screening. Mean Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) for the ECMO group was significantly lower than that of the Control group (94 ± 21 vs 108± 19, p<.001). Eighteen ECMO (12%) and 0 Controls had FSIQ < 70 (Mentally Retarded range). Academic Risk (as defined by FSIQ <80 or presence of neuropsychological deficits or failed kindergarten screen) was significantly higher among the ECMO children compared to Controls (50% vs 34%, p<.05). We obtained reports of school performance from parents of 101 of the 115 (88%) ECMO survivors when they should have completed first grade. Thirty-seven of the 101 (37%) children had experienced Academic Problems, as defined by either grade retention or having received special education resources. Seventy percent of the children with Academic Problems had been classified as Academic Risk on neuropsychological testing at age five. Eighty percent of the children classified at age five as No-Academic Risk were promoted to second grade without special education services. Stepwise regression analyses were computed with Academic Problems as the dependent variable. FSIQ,Academic Risk, and Neonatal Neuroimaging Score were entered as independent variables. Within the ECMO group (N=101), only FSIQ accounted for a significant proportion of the variance (43%). When only ECMO subjects with normal IQ were included in the analyses (N=91), only Academic Risk status accounted for a significant portion of the variance (29%). We conclude that neuropsychological testing for five year-old ECMO survivors can significantly enhance our ability to predict school difficulties. This study was funded by NIH/NINDS.

Comparison of Reading Intervention Approaches for Students with Mild Disabilities

This study reports afield test of six research-based teaching strategies with 37 special education resource teachers and 176 students with mild disabilities. The approaches included peer tutoring, reciprocal teaching, effective teaching principles, computer-aided instruction, and two direct instruction models, all used in reading instruction. Comparisons with a control group and between approaches produced inconsistent results. Students in all groups, including the controls, showed higher levels of engagement during all approaches than other researchers have reported for either mainstream or resource room students. Student achievement was highest in the computer-assisted group, in the reciprocal teaching group, and in one of the direct instruction groups.

Decreasing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms utilizing an automated classroom reinforcement device

Psychologists and physicians are frequently approached by parents and, indirectly, by classroom teachers to diagnose and treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Requests are also frequently made for psychostimulant medication to control ADHD behavioral symptoms. One reason for such requests is that alternative classroom approaches to treating ADHD have focused on positive reinforcement, response cost, and token reinforcement programs, all of which can require extensive teacher involvement. One of the major problems with such behavioral approaches is the fact that teachers have limited time to reinforce positive, attentive behaviors, and/or alternative behaviors to ADHD symptoms. This study examined the efficacy of an automated reinforcement device, the Attention Training System (ATS), in decreasing off-task behavior in an 11-year-old, fifth-grade student who had been diagnosed as being affected with ADHD and had been placed in Special Education Resource Room programming. The Attention Training System provides automated token reinforcement in the form of points on a fixed interval schedule when the youngster is on-task. When distractible, impulsive, or hyperactive behavior occurs, the Attention Training device can be activated by a teacher to provide a response-cost consequence of loss of points. The device in this study was coupled with a token reinforcement program whereby points could be exchanged for selected reinforcers at the end of each day. Results indicated that the ATS plus token reinforcement was successful in reducing off-task behavior across classes of three subject areas: Science, Reading, and Social Studies. Results have implications for psychologists and physicians in their attempts to assist families and schools in their management of youngsters with ADHD.

Parent Attitudes about Special Education and Reintegration: What is the Role of Student Outcomes?

Parents ( N=21) of children receiving special education resource room services in reading were interviewed to learn about their views concerning these services and reintegration decisions. Quantitative and qualitative research strategies were used to scale attitudes and cluster responses. Most parents had strong positive attitudes toward resource room services. The basis for these attitudes was explored, and it was found that parents' satisfaction was derived primarily from subjective perceptions (such as teachers' caring), rather than academic performance data. Most parents were reluctant to have their children reintegrated into general education classes for reading instruction. Findings are discussed in the context of special education reform efforts.

Special Education Services for Girls with Serious Emotional Disturbance: A Case of Gender Bias?

Despite the fact that boys greatly outnumber girls in receiving services under the category Serious Emotional Disturbance (SED), the possibility of bias against girls with SED has received relatively little attention. Data on three groups of adolescent students were analyzed: (a) students served as SED by the public schools (ED Sch, n=53), (b) students identified by the schools as SED but served as inpatients at a private psychiatric hospital (ED Psy, n=24), and (c) students not identified as SED by the public schools but who received services at a private psychiatric hospital (NI Psy n=40). Girls were a small proportion of the ED Sch and ED Psy groups, but the majority of the NI Psy group. These preliminary data indicate that some girls with serious emotional problems are not identified by the public schools yet are being served by private psychiatric hospitals. Possible reasons for this potentially inequitable allocation of school special education resources are suggested. Consideration and further study of the gender issues and identification and services to students with SED are discussed.

Cognitive disorders in children

Cognitive disorders affect thinking and perceptual processes and the acquisition of knowledge and new information. They have an enormous societal impact because special educational resources are required, and independent living often cannot be achieved. Learning problems may lead to behavioral disorders in the home and community. The pathogenesis of most mild and moderate cognitive disorders is poorly understood. Severe cognitive impairment is usually accompanied by somatic abnormalities, and an etiology can be identified in many cases. Specific treatments are available for disorders such as cogenital hypothyroidism, some metabolic acidurias, and congenital toxoplasmosis. Other disorders affecting cognition such as fetal alcohol syndrome, maternal cocaine and heroin exposure, HIV encephalopathy, and prematurity require aggressive prevention and education to reduce their occurrence. The recent advances in molecular genetics offer a faster and better method of diagnosing fragile X syndrome, now recognized as the most common inheritable cause of mental retardation. In the future, DNA analysis may elucidate the basis of many other cognitive disorders.

The Effects of Classroom Reading Performance Data on General Education Teachers' and Parents' Attitudes About Reintegration

This study investigated the effects of providing reading performance data on teacher and parent attitudes toward reintegration. Subjects were 23 general education teachers and 40 parents of 61 students served in special education resource room programs. Reading performance data included curriculum-based measurement oral reading and maze scores, compared to the scores of low-reading group members, as well as special education teachers' ratings of students' readiness for reintegration. Results showed significant changes in general education teachers' willingness ratings. Changes in general education teachers' attitudes were explained by their initial attitudes and the special education teachers' readiness ratings. Parents' attitudes toward reintegrating their own children, which were negative initially, were unchanged by student performance information. Implications of the results on current reintegration practices and future research are discussed.

Are IQ scores valid for children who are poor readers?

Remedial services for children with reading problems are often allocated according to discrepancies between reading and IQ scores. Results of some recent research suggest, however, that IQ scores of poor readers do not covary with their levels of functioning in other cognitive domains. This study evaluated whether the external validity of IQ scores (from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised) was moderated by reading levels within 2 separate samples of referred children. We found that IQ scores had expected correlations with external measures of verbal, visual-spatial, short-term memory, and arithmetic ability, and that these relations were invariant across levels of reading skill. Many school-age children have reading difficulties, but only some may be classified as reading disabled, which indicates a discrepancy between specific reading proficiency and general cognitive ability. Children so classified may be eligible for general learning disability services or for more specialized programs for the reading disabled. Poor readers who do not meet ability-achievement discrepancy definitions of reading disability may receive other remedial services but, in some instances, may receive none at all. For example, poor readers with IQ scores in the borderline range (e.g., 70-79 on Wechsler scales) may be ineligible for special education services because they are considered to be slow learners. Poor readers with even lower IQ scores (e.g., 60-69), however, may be eligible for placement in classrooms for the educable mentally impaired, where they may at least receive more individual attention than slow learners who remain in regular classrooms. Considering the implications for children's educational careers, it is crucial to demonstrate the validity of allocating special education resources on the basis of discrepancies between reading and general ability levels. There have been two types of criticisms about this method of allocation, however, the second of which provides the main focus of this study. First, as with the broader notion of learning disability, there are numerous conceptual and statistical problems with the operational definition of significant ability-reading discrepancies (e.g., see Kamphaus, Frick, & Lahey, 1991; Reynolds, 1984-1985). Second, there has been much debate about whether IQ tests provide valid estimates of general cognitive capacity for children with reading problems. For example, some researchers have argued that poor readers may obtain artificially low IQ scores because

The Presence of Reflective-Practice Indicators in Special Education Resource Teachers' Instructional Decision Making

Reflective practice (Schon, 1983) is a decision-making theory that defines a set of components professionals might use to resolve unique or complex problems as they arise. In this study, expert high-school special education resource teachers were observed providing instruction in the classroom. Content analysis of postobservation interview transcripts was used to identify the presence of 124 reflective-practice indicators in the subjects' instructional decisions: 49 (39%) for the component of personal responsibility, 39 (32%) for the component of testing, and 36 (29%) for the component of problem setting. Results suggest that special education resource teachers use reflective practice to some degree when managing instructional problems.

Using CSL with Special Education and Reading Resource Students

Using CSL with Special Education and Reading Resource Students

Challenging Times for Teachers

The appropriateness or otherwise of the National Curriculum for pupils with challenging behaviour is questioned by Keith Humphreys, head of the Special Educational Needs Resources Centre, Department of Education, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, and Eileen Sturt, senior teacher, Feversham School, Newcastle upon Tyne.

Effects of Handicap Severity, Responsibility, and Race on Impressions of Substance‐Abusing Mothers and Their Children

The purpose of this study was to examine how individuals’ impressions of a handicapped child and the child's mother would be affected by (a) the mother's apparent degree of responsibility for the child's handicap (operationalized as engaging or not engaging in alcohol abuse while pregnant), (b) severity of the child's handicap, and (c) race of the mother (black vs. white). Impressions were defined as respondents'(a) decisions regarding funding for special education services for the child, (b) emotional reactions toward the mother and the child, (c) perceptions of traits possessed by the mother, and (d) evaluations of the fairness of payment strategies for special education resources for the child. A vignette approach was used in which each respondent read one of eight possible descriptions of mother and child. Results indicated that although mothers were evaluated more negatively when they engaged in alcohol abuse than when they did not, these critical impressions did not “spill over” to negatively color appraisals of the child. Mothers who were black and who had a severely handicapped child were evaluated more negatively than were white mothers in the same situation, although the reverse occurred when the child's handicap was described as being only moderate. Implications are discussed.

Biologic factors as predictors of social outcome of epilepsy in intellectually normal children: A population-based study

We studied social outcome for all the normally intelligent children in our province with onset of epilepsy between 1977 and 1985 (excluding absence and "minor motor" seizures). After follow-up averaging 7 1/2 years, the 337 patients were 7 to 28 years of age. Outcome measures were age dependent. Of those old enough to be at risk, the percentage with each unfavorable outcome was as follows: school failure 34%, use of special educational resources 34%, mental health consultation 22%, psychotropic medication 5%, unemployment 20%, social isolation 27%, inadvertent pregnancy 12%, and criminal conviction 2%. In social isolation 27%, inadvertent pregnancy 12%, and criminal conviction 2%. In a multivariate model correcting for number of potential unfavorable outcomes (based on age at end of follow-up), many variables related to epilepsy, seizure control, and electroencephalographic findings were not associated with social outcome. Only two variables were associated with at least one unfavorable outcome--learning disorder (p < 0.001) and more than 21 seizures before treatment was begun (p < 0.03). The only variable with no unfavorable outcome was simple partial seizures (p < 0.003). Sensitivity and specificity of this model were 54% and 68%, respectively, indicating that social outcome for these children was often not related to biologic factors reflected by the medical details and clinical course of their disorder.

Towards a comprehensive model of a special education resource consultant

At a time when special needs roles are under serious examination, it is interesting to see what is being considered in other countries. Jeff and Robyn Bailey introduce us to the Australian version of the special needs co‐ordinator, the ‘resource consultant’. This article supports the long‐held conviction of this journal that we benefit greatly from looking at developments in other countries. The work in Queensland parallels much of our own experience but there are sufficient divergences to illuminate our current thinking.

A Conservative Approach to Special Education Reform: Mainstreaming Through Transenvironmental Programming and Curriculum-Based Measurement

There is strong disagreement about where to educate the majority of children with disabilities—in special or regular education settings. Although most agree that some special-needs students require separate instruction for at least part of the school day, Federal law requires educators to prepare these students for an eventual return to the mainstream. Our study’s purpose was to implement and validate a process for readying students to transition successfully from special education resource rooms to regular classrooms for math instruction. Preparation included use of curriculum-based measurement and transenvironmental programming. Forty-two students with mild disabilities were assigned to experimental and control groups. Math progress was measured by pre-versus posttreatment and ongoing curriculum-based achievement data, obtained in special and regular education settings, and by teacher reports. Findings indicated that experimental students substantially reduced time spent in special education math, whereas control students’ time in special education math was unchanged. Experimental students’ pre- to posttreatment achievement was greater than that of controls and was similar to the progress of lowest-achieving nondisabled students in mainstream classes. Time-series analysis revealed, however, that experimental students’ improved performance occurred only in special education; once in the mainstream, their progress ceased. Implications for educational policy are discussed.