Visual-spatial Research Articles

Spatial Cognition and Learners’ Readiness toward STEM in Post-Pandemic

Spatial Cognition plays a very significant role towards the success of various scientific disciplines, as literature has demonstrated clearly that these skills are highly demanded for learning and pursuing STEM fields. This study was carried out to explore the level of spatial cognition among high school students and examine the learners' readiness towards STEM subjects. The study was descriptive and a quantitative research method was applied. A standardized tool was utilized to assess the spatial cognition of the students of the science group of grades 9 to 12th. 130 students from 13 to 18 years with an average age of 15.5 were administered the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) for measuring spatial cognition and readiness was measured through statements using a 5-point Likert scale. The results were analyzed using the SPSS-21 version. It was found that the majority of the students had low level of spatial cognition, which hindered their readiness regarding STEM in post-pandemic situations. There was a positive linear relationship between spatial cognition and readiness of the learners’ regarding STEM subjects. Moreover, it was concluded that there was a significant impact of spatial cognition on the readiness of the learners towards STEM. Therefore, it was recommended that the science curriculum should be designed in such a way that incorporates spatial reasoning skills among students. This study's findings serve as a baseline to attract the science educationists towards a challenging predictor.

Groundwater suitability assessment for irrigation and drinking purposes by integrating spatial analysis, machine learning, water quality index, and health risk model.

An in-depth understanding of nitrate-contaminated surface water and groundwater quality and associated risks is important for groundwater management. Hydrochemical characteristics and driving forces of groundwater quality and non-carcinogenic risks of nitrate were revealed by the integrated approaches of self-organizing map analysis, spatial visualization by geography information system, entropy and irrigation water quality indices, and human health risk model. Groundwater samples were categorized into two clusters by SOM analysis. Cluster I including three samples were Ca-SO4 type and cluster II of remaining 136 samples were Ca-HCO3 type. Hydrochemical compositions of two cluster samples were dominated by water-rock interaction: (1) calcite and gypsum dissolution for cluster I samples and (2) calcite dissolution, silicate weathering, and positive cation exchange for cluster II samples. Nitrate contamination occurred in both cluster I and II samples, primarily induced by agricultural nitrogen fertilizer. The EWQI results showed that 90.97% in total groundwater samples were suitable for drinking purpose, while the IWQI results demonstrated that 65.03% in total groundwater samples were appropriate for irrigation purpose. The HHR model and Monte Carlo simulation indicated that the non-carcinogenic nitrated risk was highest in children. Exposure frequency was the most sensitive factor (86.33% in total) influencing the total non-carcinogenic risk, indicated by sensitivity analysis. Compared with the two clusters of groundwater, surface water has a shorter circulation cycle and lower ion concentrations resulting in better water quality. This study can provide scientific basis for groundwater quality evaluation in other parts of the world.

Preliminary Exploration of the Monetization of Land Tax in the Mid-Ming Dynasty's Western Shandong Region from an HGIS Perspective

Transportation and retention are among the most important elements of the fiscal system during the Ming Dynasty, categorized as types of tax allocations used in the collection of the land tax, reflecting the fiscal relations between central and local governments. Thus, transportation and retention are central to the fiscal operations of the Ming Dynasty. This paper compiles fiscal data from the Western Shandong Region during the Ming Dynasty and discusses the transportation, retention, and the monetization issues of the land tax during the Wanli Reform. Using Geographic Information Systems, the spatial visualization of the traditional and new land tax transportation quotas was performed, revealing that the new tax regime is heavily constrained by the original quotas.

Enhancing computational thinking and spatial reasoning skills in gamification programming learning: A comparative study of tangible, block and paper‐and‐pencil tools

AbstractTangible programming tools have become a mainstream teaching aid in gamification programming learning (GPL) due to their interactivity and ability to enhance novice learners' computational thinking and spatial reasoning skills. However, comparing the relative efficacy of different programming tools that simultaneously support these skills was not adequately explored. This study designed and evaluated three programming tools: the tangible programming tool (TPG), which uses real touchable objects; the block programming tool (BPG), which employs virtual programming blocks and 3D game scenarios; and the paper‐and‐pencil programming tool (PPG), which uses paper and pen to draw. The study involved 112 seventh‐grade students from three natural classes: Class A (TPG, n1=37), Class B (BPG, n2=38), and Class C (PPG, n3=37). These students completed four gamification programming tasks and CT skills, spatial reasoning skills, enjoyment, cognitive load and GPL task list measurements. The results indicated that the tangible programming tool led to lower cognitive load, significant improvement in spatial reasoning skills and better abstraction and problem decomposition skills. The block programming tool provided a more enjoyable experience and facilitated students' algorithm design and efficiency. The paper‐and‐pencil programming tool was found to be less effective in improving spatial reasoning skills. This study's findings can help programming educators cultivate students' thinking skills and improve their learning experience by effectively selecting the most appropriate programming tools.

Metropolitan spatial structure based on commuting pattern: a comparison between Jakarta and Surabaya metropolitans

ABSTRACT Different urban structures can present different problems. Therefore, it is important to organize the spatial structure of the city to ensure the movement and welfare of city residents. Metropolitan Jakarta and Surabaya are the two largest metropolitan areas in Indonesia and play a very important role as centres of national social and economic activities. This study aims to identify urban spatial structures based on commuter movement patterns in both metropolitan areas. This is done by calculating the spatial interaction and visualization of the Desire Line Map. The results of the analysis show that Jakarta and Surabaya Metropolitan Areas still tend to be monocentric because the attraction of their movements is still dominated by their respective cores.

Enhancing Spatial Ability: A New Integrated Hybrid Training Approach for Engineering and Architecture Students

Spatial ability (SA) is the mental ability to create, maintain, and manipulate abstract visual representations. Studies have shown that SA is a strong predictor of success in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). More recently, attention has extended to the field of architecture, a discipline where spatial thinking skills are fundamental, yet students in this field have not been extensively examined in terms of their spatial abilities. Therefore, SA skills are essential for students in engineering and architecture during their initial academic phases. This research was conducted within an interdisciplinary academic college and describes in detail a new integrated and hybrid training program that is part of a recent mixed-methods study. This program was built to effectively enhance the SA of first-year undergraduate students in a cost-effective manner, using a multi-method teaching strategy. The training program spanned more than 20 h across four sessions. This article focuses on the training methodology, encompassing four key phases, and serves as a complementary article to the one that was just published separately, describing the effectiveness of this intervention program as measured using SA standard tests. Notably, in certain scenarios, these phases were combined rather than being standalone independent modules. The traditional teaching method (TTM) lays the foundation for SA knowledge via lectures and collaborative interactions. Subsequently, computer-based learning (CBL), using tools such as SketchUp and GeoGebra, facilitates in-depth virtual geometric exploration. Augmented reality (AR) training offers an immersive learning experience, allowing students to interact with 3D objects in real-world environments. Finally, the building real model (BRM) phase transforms 2D designs into tangible 3D structures. This study highlights the comprehensive training approach, emphasizing the robust learning environment facilitated by integrating these phases as part of the full mixed-methods research. The suggested integrated training program was qualitatively explored through post-intervention evaluations to understand participants’ experiences and perceptions.

Beyond numbers: the role of mathematics self-concept and spatial anxiety in shaping mental rotation performance and STEM preferences in primary education

IntroductionFactors such as low self-concept and anxiety have been shown to negatively impact mathematical achievement and spatial skills, as well as enjoyment of math-related subjects. Understanding these factors is crucial for promoting STEM interest and performance, particularly among primary school students.MethodsThis cross-sectional study examines the influence of gender, childhood development stage, maths self-concept, spatial anxiety, perceived difficulty, mental rotation performance, and STEM preferences in a sample of 144 primary school students (mean age M = 8.47), comprising 70 girls and 74 boys. Data were collected through four questionnaires and a computerized Mental Rotation Task (MRT).ResultsGirls and tweens (9-to-11-year-olds) exhibit lower maths self-concept, impacting their preference for maths as a STEM subject. Girls also demonstrate higher spatial anxiety and perceived difficulty of the MRT compared to boys. Maths self-concept is significantly associated with spatial anxiety and perceived difficulty, while gender is not. Maths self-concept shows marginal effects on students’ accuracy on the MRT, with evidence of a mediating effect of spatial anxiety.DiscussionThese findings underscore the importance of maths self-concept in shaping STEM preferences, particularly among girls and tweens. Additionally, maths self-concept serves as a mitigating factor for spatial anxiety and perceived difficulty in spatial tasks among primary school children. The study also suggests that spatial anxiety may contribute to gender disparities in mathematics and STEM-related domains. Further research is needed to explore interventions targeting maths self-concept and spatial anxiety to promote equitable STEM engagement amongst primary school students.

Comparison of the effects of PBL in 3D virtual environment and F2F on learning and spatial skills

AbstractThis study aimed to juxtapose the impacts of the Problem-Based Learning (PBL) methodology implemented within a three-dimensional (3D) virtual environment against PBL in a conventional face-to-face setting, along with a control group, on students' learning performance, conceptual comprehension, and spatial aptitude. The investigation concentrated on the structure of matter within a seventh-grade science curriculum, encompassing a cohort of 79 students enrolled in the course. The study was conducted under a mixed methods experimental design and comprised three distinct groups: two experimental groups (E1; E2) and one control group (C). The instructional intervention in the E1 group involved utilizing a 3D virtual environment grounded in the problem-based learning method, whereas the E2 group underwent face-to-face instruction employing worksheets derived from problem-based learning. In contrast, the control group received traditional direct instruction from the science teacher through lectures, demonstrations, and question-and-answer sessions, all focusing on the same topic. Pretests and posttests were administered to the participants before and after the experimental interventions, assessing conceptual understanding, spatial visualization, and mental rotation. Additionally, learning tasks completed by the E1 and E2 groups were evaluated using rubrics to assess learning performance. Subsequent to the post-test, individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with randomly selected students from the E1 group. The results indicated that instruction within the problem-based 3D virtual environment significantly enhanced students' learning performance, conceptual understanding, spatial visualization, and mental rotation skills compared to the other instructional conditions.

Tomographic three-dimensional ultrasound imaging improves spatial visualization and management of varicose veins

Tomographic three-dimensional ultrasound using handsfree electromagnetic tracking is an important adjunct to traditional two-dimensional duplex ultrasound examination. This technique allows vascular surgeons to better orientate and visualize the often complex anatomy along the entire length of the target vein. This paper reports a novel technique in preoperative and postoperative acquisition of superficial incompetent veins, thereby providing a comprehensive three-dimensional orientation of different pathological patterns of incompetence.

Strobe training as a visual training method that improves performance in climbing.

Strobe training is a form of visual training where the athlete has to practice during intermittently dark conditions. Strobe training improves visual, perceptual, and cognitive skills, which will enhance athletic performance. Strobe training can influence multiple training components in climbing: psychological, tactical, physical, and technical training. The study was conducted on 17 elite climbers from Romania (10 male and 7 female), representing the entire National Youth Climbing Team. The research group was divided into a control group (n = 8) and an experimental group (n = 9). The used instruments were the Cognitrom battery (for cognitive skills, such as spatial skills and reactivity), the Witty SEM system (for motor-cognitive skills, such as cognitive agility, visual processing speed, and visual memory), and the International Rock Climbing Research Association (IRCRA) performance-related test battery for climbers (climbing-specific motor skills). The experimental group had 20 strobe training sessions, which took place during one calendar year, as an additional session to their climbing schedule done with their principal trainer. The strobe session was once a week, depending on the periodization of the macrocycle (preparatory, competitional, and transition periods). The control group and the experimental group had similar climbing training sessions during the 1-year macrocycle in terms of intensity and volume of their training. Strobe training improved on-sight performance (d = 0.38) and red-point performance (d = 0.36). Strobe training improved the majority of cognitive skills [all spatial skills (d = 1.27 for mental image transformation; d = 1.14 for spatial orientation; d = 1.59 for image generation) and simple reaction time (d = 0.99)]. Strobe training improved all motor-cognitive skills (d = 0.16 for visual memory; d = 1.96 for visual memory errors; d = 1.39 for visual processing speed; d = 1.94 for visual processing errors; d = 1.30 for cognitive agility). Strobe training improved many climbing-specific parameters (flexibility and upper body strength) (d = 0.44 and d = 0.47 for flexibility parameters; d = 0.50 to 0.73 for upper body strength parameters). Strobe training is an effective training method for enhancing performance that should be used on more experienced climbers. It acts more on spatial skills, rather than on reactivity skills, developing the visual-motor coordination system. Strobe training has greater effects on climbers aged below 16 years, as youth athletes rely more on visual input compared to adults. The improvement in climbing-specific variables was due to the additional climbing session done weekly. Strobe training acts more on the cognitive component of training than on the motor component of training in climbing.

Deep Transcriptomics Reveals Cell-Specific Isoforms of Pan-Neuronal Genes.

Profiling gene expression in single neurons using single-cell RNA-Seq is a powerful method for understanding the molecular diversity of the nervous system. Profiling alternative splicing in single neurons using these methods is more challenging, however, due to low capture efficiency and sensitivity. As a result, we know much less about splicing patterns and regulation across neurons than we do about gene expression. Here we leverage unique attributes of the C. elegans nervous system to investigate deep cell-specific transcriptomes complete with biological replicates generated by the CeNGEN consortium, enabling high-confidence assessment of splicing across neuron types even for lowly-expressed genes. Global splicing maps reveal several striking observations, including pan-neuronal genes that harbor cell-specific splice variants, abundant differential intron retention across neuron types, and a single neuron highly enriched for upstream alternative 3' splice sites. We develop an algorithm to identify unique cell-specific expression patterns and use it to discover both cell-specific isoforms and potential regulatory RNA binding proteins that establish these isoforms. Genetic interrogation of these RNA binding proteins in vivo identifies three distinct regulatory factors employed to establish unique splicing patterns in a single neuron. Finally, we develop a user-friendly platform for spatial transcriptomic visualization of these splicing patterns with single-neuron resolution.

The effect of cognitive flexibility on students’ spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills in a three-dimensional design and coding training

ABSTRACT Aim and background Today, students are encouraged to develop spatial visualization ability to meet the challenges of digital technologies impacting their daily life and education when exposed more time to a virtual 3D environment. This study investigated the effect of cognitive flexibility levels on students’ spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills in three-dimensional design and coding training. In addition, this study examined the effect of the training on the spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills of the students. Method The study employed a one-group pre-test/post-test quasi-experimental design. A total of 60 university students (51 female and 9 male) participated in this study. University students received three-dimensional design and coding training by using Tinkercad. The Spatial Visualization Test, the Cognitive Flexibility Scale, the Computational Thinking Scale and semi-structured interview form were used to collect data. Paired samples t-test and one-way ANCOVA were used for the data analysis. Results and discussion Results from the training indicated that the students’ spatial visualization abilities improved. Their spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills were related to their cognitive flexibility levels. The training also improved the spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills of students with high cognitive flexibility. 3D design and coding education could be more effective for students with high cognitive flexibility. The qualitative findings supported the results of the study.

Impact of distinct cognitive domains on gait variability in individuals with mild cognitive impairment and dementia.

Gait variability is a common feature in neurodegenerative diseases and has been linked to cognitive impairment. Despite this link, the influence of specific cognitive domains, such as memory, visual spatial skills, executive function, and verbal function on gait variability is not well-understood. To investigate the predictive value of these specific cognitive domains on gait variability in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia during preferred and dual task walking. One hundred and two participants with either MCI or dementia underwent a comprehensive cognitive assessment and completed preferred and dual-task walking trials on a pressure-sensing walkway. Gait variability was assessed using the PKMAS software. Lower extremity function was evaluated with a self-reported validated scale. Our findings indicate that only visual spatial abilities had a moderate predictive value on gait variability [F (1, 78) = 17.30, p < 0.01, r = 0.43], both in preferred pace walking (70% direct effect) and dual-task walking (90% direct effect) (p's < 0.05). Additionally, lower extremity functional skills had a significant indirect effect (30%) on gait variability in preferred walking contexts. For individuals diagnosed with MCI or dementia, increased gait variability may be driven by deficits in visual spatial processing. An increased understanding of the role of visual spatial processing in gait variability can aid in the assessment and management of individuals with MCI or dementia, potentially leading to targeted interventions to improve mobility and safety.

Cross-disciplinary impact of spatial visualization ability on study success in higher education.

Cross-disciplinary impact of spatial visualization ability on study success in higher education.

Using single-beam bathymetric data in digital depth models, for viewing the Sargassum furcatum bed in Cabo Frio Island

Single-beam bathymetric surveys are used in several areas, namely, in the assessment of underwater geography as determining factor for navigation; conducting scientific studies and exploration of oil and natural resources. The data acquired in this type of surveys offers a grid of X, Y and Z sample points. For the correct spatial visualization in a continuous data grid, it is necessary to apply mathematical interpolators to estimate the depth value in the points not covered by the survey. The​​​​​​​ Sargassum furcatum bed presents on Cabo Frio island is the target of several studies due the importance of its primary productivity and biodiversity. It was verified after the elaboration of the digital depth models, characteristics regarding the location and spatial distribution of the Sargassum furcatum bed. Based on results obtained in the construction of the digital depth models, it was possible to demonstrate that the association of surveys, mining and interpolation methods for single-beam bathymetry data, developed during this study, were suitable to assess the visualization the Sargassum furcatum bed in Cabo Frio Island, Arraial do Cabo - RJ.

L3 English in the German secondary school context: longitudinal development of bilingual heritage speakers’ multilingual repertoire

ABSTRACT A multilingual experience can be considered a significant asset. However, since the earliest studies in the field, research has reported mixed results regarding potential advantages such as increased cognitive ability and metalinguistic awareness. Moreover, studies investigating the influence of bilingualism/multilingualism on the acquisition of additional languages produced partially conflicting findings. This longitudinal study (three measurement time points within 1.5 years) investigates the impact of social, cognitive, and linguistic variables on English proficiency. We rely on data gathered from 374 unbalanced bilinguals (Russian-/Turkish-German), dominant in German, and 600 monolingual (German) students attending grades seven to ten in Germany. We use multiple linear regression models predicting English proficiency to track longitudinal changes. The results show that German reading proficiency and visual-spatial cognitive ability positively impact L2/L3 English C-test scores. In addition, the impact of heritage language proficiency is not statistically significant and language background did not bring about clear differences between the monolingual and bilingual cohorts per se. We conclude that there are differences between the Turkish-German students and their peers, but not between the monolinguals and Russian-German students. We discuss these findings in light of current teaching approaches prevailing in Germany's foreign language classrooms and perceptions of heritage languages in society.

A Conceptual Framework for Integrating Mental Rotation and 3D Animation Pedagogy

This conceptual paper introduces a framework exploring the emotive dimensions of spatial learning in college students, employing a quantitative research approach. Integrating the mental rotation method with 3D animation pedagogy, the research aims to elucidate the interplay between emotional learning and spatial visualization enhancement. Quantitative data analysis includes descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). The framework proposes that this combination can evoke positive emotions, such as engagement and enjoyment, contributing to a more effective spatial learning experience. Findings emphasize the mediating role of emotional engagement in the relationship between pedagogical methods and spatial learning outcomes. Educators are encouraged to consider students' emotional responses, recognizing the potential of positive emotions to enhance mental rotation training within the context of 3D animation. In conclusion, this conceptual framework provides a foundation for further research and practical applications, aiming to optimize spatial learning outcomes in college students.

Psychometric properties of the spatial skills self-efficacy scale: A validity and reliability study

The aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable spatial skills self-efficacy scale for middle school students. To this end, the study sampled 5th-, 6th-, 7th-, and 8-grade students in the spring term of the 2021–2022 academic year. The data were collected from 1369 students for the pilot study and the validity and reliability analysis to investigate the psychometric properties of the scale. Twenty-five subject matter experts were asked for opinions and Lawshe's content validity ratio (1975) was used to measure the content validity of the scale. The results of the exploratory factor analysis conducted for the construct validity yielded a four-factor structure consisting of seventeen items, which accounted for 41.37 % of the total variance. The factor loadings of the scale items ranged from 0.41 to 0.75. When the fit indices of the model were examined as a result of Confirmatory Factor Analysis, it was determined that the firstorder multifactor structure were within the excellent or acceptable value ranges. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was found to be 0.77 for the total scale. The results of the independent samples t-test for the upper and lower 27 % groups showed a significant difference between the groups for all scale items. The correlation coefficients of the subscales with one another and with the total scale showed significant positive moderate and high correlations. The test–retest reliability coefficients also showed significant positive moderate and high correlations. These results indicate that the Spatial Skills Self-Efficacy Scale is a measurement tool that produces valid and reliable measurements and can be used to determine the spatial skills self-efficacy of middle school students.

Lesson Study as a Professional Development Model for Teaching Spatial Ability in Primary STEM

This study explores the efficacy of a professional development (PD) model that employs lesson study to teach spatial ability skills in primary STEM education. The structure of the PD supported the ‘Insights’ mechanism by focusing on visualisation, mental rotation, construction and deconstruction, and spatial orientation, which are vital for nurturing students’ spatial abilities. The ‘Motivation’ mechanism was addressed through goal setting in lesson planning, motivating teachers to integrate spatial tasks into their curricula. Continuous feedback and practical support facilitated the ‘Technique’ mechanism, embedding learned skills into everyday teaching practices. Last, the ‘Embed in Practice’ mechanisms, including action planning and prompts, were effectively translated into classroom practices, evidencing the model’s operational efficacy.

Visual-spatial abilities are NOT related to the speed of mental rotation.

Individuals' reaction time (RT) slopes in tasks of mental rotation have been found to be related to other measures of visual-spatial abilities, and thus are often viewed as a psychometric measure of visual-spatial abilities. The common interpretation of individual RT slopes is as a measure of the speed at which the rotation is carried out. However, electroencephalography studies have found that the process of mental rotation continues after response selection has been carried out, casting doubt on the interpretation of RT slopes as measures of the speed of mental rotation. This study made use of electroencephalography techniques to directly capture individual differences in the speed of mental rotation and assess their association with visual-spatial abilities. We found that individual differences in mental rotation speed are not related to individual differences in RT slopes. Moreover, a computation model supports an alternative explanation by which RT slopes reflect individual differences in differential tolerances for stimulus identification within mental rotation tasks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).