Spanish Skills Research Articles

SHL Literacy Skills

For SHL learners in U.S. schools, formal exposure to reading is more frequently experienced in English rather than Spanish. Consequently, research in SHL literacy focuses more on writing development and presumes SHL/SNS learners possess little to no reading skills in Spanish. We assert that SHL reading abilities are not inexistent, rather, that texts used in traditional classroomreading activities do not provide adequate measures of such skills (Brantmeier, 2005). Our efforts in designing an innovative reading task as part of a placement measure (MacGregor-Mendoza & Moreno, 2020a), provided an opportunity to investigate how diverse literary forms aid in identifying the literacy skills that SHL learners already do possess. The present study demonstrates that shedding the perspective of reading from an L2 standpoint and instead, modeling texts after those used by SHL learners in their own daily literacy practices provides greater opportunities to discern their reading abilities for the purposes of placement and beyond.

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF BLENDED ASYNCHRONOUS AND SYNCHRONOUS LEARNING IN AN ADVANCED SPANISH CONVERSATION CLASS

<p>This study examines students’ perception of blended asynchronous and synchronous learning in an advanced L2 Spanish conversation course that took place at a major-sized public university in the Unites States as an intensive 5-week summer course during the COVID-19 pandemic. Twenty students participated in a survey, which was comprised with open-ended questions about their overall perception about the online activities and learning, in addition to 51 five-point Likert scale questions about course design, course components, instructor feedback, and peer interactions and rapport. Findings indicate that most of students perceived that they have gained proficiency in speaking, listening, reading and writing, and they felt more comfortable and confident in communicating in Spanish. The activities that students perceived more helpful than others in enhancing communication skills in Spanish were both the semi-guided synchronous, unsupervised group conversations via Zoom and the asynchronous video reports and discussions, while the small group Zoom conversation activity was also perceived as the most enjoyable. Students’ overall positive perceptions and satisfaction about this blended course were achieved through a combination of several factors, such as the clarity of the course design and instructions, the right combination of asynchronous and synchronous online activities that provided students with enriched materials to learn as well as ample opportunities to practice Spanish, the interactions and support with peers that created a sense of learning community and connectedness, and the instructor’s timely and constant feedback, rapport, and social presence to motivate students to learn. </p><p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0994/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Cultivating a Culture of Bilingualism: Evaluating a Home Language Arts Curriculum for SIFE

This study is a mixed-methods exploratory study of a Spanish Home Language Arts (HLA) pilot curriculum designed for Students with Interrupted Education (SIFE) as it was implemented across six different schools in New York State during the 2019–2020 school year before the onset of COVID-19. The focus of the study was to observe whether the HLA curriculum improved teacher practice in the increased use of the gradual release of responsibility and the curriculum-prescribed protocols. Another goal was to examine whether the use of the curriculum helped to improve student writing and bilingual literacy. A final goal of the study was to survey teachers on their perceptions of the curriculum, especially in how the lesson design fostered student engagement and collaboration with others. The results of the internal evaluation showed that the teachers improved in their practice, especially in the areas of gradual release and increased student time on task. The students were able to develop specific text analysis and writing skills using instructional protocols used in the home language and in English that were transferable across classroom contexts. In addition, the lessons encouraged students to leverage literacy skills and background knowledge in Spanish as a way to support learning new skills in both Spanish and English. Finally, the study showed that the use of the curriculum increased student engagement and collaboration in the classroom.

Majority language skill, not measures of bilingualism, predicts executive attention in bilingual children

Evidence is mixed regarding whether and why bilingual children might be advantaged in the development of executive functions. Five preregistered hypotheses regarding sources of a bilingual advantage were tested with data from 102 Spanish–English bilingual children and 25 English monolingual children who were administered a test of executive attention, the flanker task, at 7, 8, and 9 years of age. Measures of the children’s early and concurrent bilingual exposure and their concurrent English and Spanish skill were available from a larger longitudinal study in which these children participated. Tests of the preregistered hypotheses yielded null findings: The bilingual children’s executive attention abilities were unrelated to their amount of early exposure to mixed input, to balance in their early dual language exposure, to balance in their concurrent exposure, to their degree of bilingualism, or to their combined Spanish + English vocabulary score. English vocabulary score was a positive significant correlate of executive attention among the bilingual children, but those bilingual children above the group median in English vocabulary did not outperform the monolingual children when the comparison was adjusted for nonverbal IQ. These findings suggest that a language learning ability may explain the association between bilingualism and executive function. Because the best statistical approach to testing for effects on differences is a matter of dispute, all analyses were conducted with both a difference score and a residual gain score as the outcome variable. The central findings, but not all findings, were the same with both approaches.

Generational differences in the placement of clitic se in New York City Spanish

Aims and objectives: This study analyzes the proclitic and enclitic positions of Spanish clitic se (e.g., ella se quería ir / ella quería irse ‘she wanted to go’) across two generations of Spanish speakers in New York City. In an effort to contribute to ongoing research aimed at better understanding Spanish in the US, the following questions are addressed. In syntactic environments that permit variation, does placement of Spanish se differ between the two generations? From the internal variables identified for this study (nonfinite verb type, finite verb, tense of finite verb, grammatical person, use of se, grammatical mood of finite verb, negation), which ones have a statistically significant effect on placement? From the external variables identified for this study (national origin, region, areal origins, sex, age, years in US, socioeconomic class, education, English skill, Spanish skill, general Spanish use), which ones have a statistically significant effect on placement? Design and data: This study is carried out within a variationist-sociolinguistic framework and the sample consists of 50 participants, 25 from the first generation (G1) and 25 from the second (G2). Analysis: Bivariate chi-square tests are performed in order to determine what internal and external variables constrain placement of the dependent variable (clitic se placement). Findings: Generation has a statistically significant effect on placement ( p = .016), wherein proclisis is more frequent amongst the G2 participants. These results corroborate previous research showing an overall preference for proclisis in both monolingual and bilingual/heritage speakers. Further, chi-square tests pinpoint five conditioning effects for G1 (nonfinite verb type, use of se, finite verb, years in US, and English skill), but only two for G2 (use of se and English skill). Originality and implications: The present study is the first to discover strong correlations between the proclitic position and the numerous internal and external variables quantitatively assessed. Future research is thus warranted.

Profiles of Minority-Majority Language Proficiency in 5-Year-Olds.

Children from language minority homes reach school age with variable dual language skills. Cluster analysis identified four bilingual profiles among 126 U.S.-born, 5-year-old Spanish-English bilinguals. The profiles differed on two dimensions: language balance and total language knowledge. Balance varied primarily as a function of indicators of the relative quantity and the quality of their language exposure (amount of home exposure and maternal education in each language). Total language knowledge varied primarily as a function of indicators of children's language learning ability (phonological memory and nonverbal intelligence). English dominance was more prevalent than balanced bilingualism; there was no Spanish dominant profile, despite average Spanish dominance in home language use. There was no evidence of a tradeoff between English and Spanish skills.

Parental Beliefs and Knowledge, Children's Home Language Experiences, and School Readiness: The Dual Language Perspective.

Parental beliefs and knowledge about child development affect how they construct children’s home learning experiences, which in turn impact children’s developmental outcomes. A rapidly growing population of dual language learners (DLLs) highlights the need for a better understanding of parents’ beliefs and knowledge about dual language development and practices to support DLLs. The current study examined the dual language beliefs and knowledge of parents of Spanish-English preschool DLLs (n = 32). We further asked how socioeconomic and sociocultural factors were associated with parental beliefs and knowledge, and how parental beliefs and knowledge related to DLLs’ home dual language experiences and school readiness skills as rated by their teachers. Results suggested both strengths and opportunities for growth in parental beliefs and knowledge. Moreover, parents from higher-SES backgrounds reported beliefs and knowledge that were more consistent with scientific evidence. Furthermore, parental beliefs and knowledge was positively related to relative Spanish input at home and negatively related to the frequency of English language and literacy activities. However, parental beliefs and knowledge were not associated with children’s dual language output at home or the frequency of Spanish language and literacy activities. Finally, parental beliefs and knowledge were associated with children’s school readiness skills in Spanish but not in English. Together, these findings highlight the need for culturally responsive interventions and parent education programs, which must recognize both the strengths and areas of improvement in parents of DLLs and support parents to transform knowledge into high-quality language and literacy experiences that benefit DLLs.

Habla Conmigo: Teachers’ Spanish Talk and Latine Dual Language Learners’ School Readiness Skills

ABSTRACT Reh Fgs: Preschool is a critical period during which children’s development and learning exert a long-lasting impact on their school adjustment and academic outcomes. Although research on monolingual English-speaking children has identified elements of high-quality preschool experiences that can serve as the foundation for teaching all young children, educators recognize that the current knowledge may be insufficient to promote dual language learners’ (DLLs) optimal learning. An area in which more research is needed to better serve DLLs in the preschool setting concerns how teachers use their students’ home language in the classroom. Using multilevel modeling, this study examined the specific ways teachers use students’ home language (Spanish) in their various verbal exchanges in the classroom (i.e., giving directions, requesting language, providing and eliciting contextualized information, and providing and eliciting decontextualized information). These conversations with Latine DLLs, as measured by the Language Interaction Snapshot, uniquely contributed to students’ language and social skills at the end of the Head Start academic year. Results revealed statistically significant relations between teachers’ Spanish talk and DLLs’ social outcomes. Specifically, teachers’ Spanish talk with DLLs and DLLs’ initial English and Spanish skills were positively associated with the latter’s interactive peer play behaviors, whereas DLLs’ initial English skills were negatively associated with their disconnected peer play behaviors. Pre or Policy: Implications for promoting more equitable language learning environments in preschool and for teacher professional development, as well as potential directions for future research investigating DLLs’ school readiness skills, are discussed.

Leveraging a Spanish Literacy Intervention to Support Outcomes of English Learners

Over 11 million students enter school speaking a language other than English. Due to their emerging English proficiency, many English Learners (ELs) struggle with English literacy, which impacts their overall achievement in school. However, there is evidence that ELs who have solid skills in their native language are able to apply their understanding to their learning in English. Thus, it is critical to understand how Spanish literacy interventions used in schools affect the English literacy outcomes of struggling ELs. The purpose of this study was to determine how a Spanish phonics-based literacy intervention, used during Tier 2 of a multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS), affects ELs’ literacy skills in Spanish and English. Overall, a positive growth trend was noted on all literacy measures in both languages, while statistically significant results were obtained for Spanish and English phonics. Given the positive impact on students’ Spanish and English literacy development, native language instruction and interventions should be provided to struggling ELs. Other implications include the need for teacher preparation in the area of bilingual education as well as the implementation of culturally responsive reading interventions in the students’ native language to assist them in bridging the literacy achievement gap.

Teachers’ Beliefs about Translanguaging: Effects of Language Skills and Instructional Settings

Experimental research was conducted to examine teachers’ beliefs about classroom activities involving translanguaging, a pedagogical practice in which students use both their home language and second language to communicate, learn academic content, and develop oral and literacy skills in both languages. Teachers (n = 249) completed a survey to rate the effectiveness of translanguaging in general and specifically for students who vary in L1 and L2 proficiency (in this research, Spanish and English). Participants were randomly assigned to respond concerning one of four instructional settings: Bilingual Education (BE), Dual Language (DL), General Education (GE), and English as a Second Language (ESL). In general, translanguaging was viewed as more effective when students’ Spanish skills are strong, although strong English skills also were seen to make it more effective to a lesser extent. Teachers rated translanguaging as generally more effective in DL and BE, likely because these settings explicitly leverage students’ home-language skills. Classroom practices based on these beliefs may exacerbate achievement gaps between high- and low-proficiency populations, by directing the richness of the home language and culture disproportionately to high-proficiency students. Teacher-education practices are needed emphasizing translanguaging for all students regardless of home-language proficiency.

Medical Spanish Musculoskeletal and Dermatologic Educational Module.

IntroductionWhile many medical schools provide opportunities in medical Spanish for medical students, schools often struggle with identifying a structured curriculum. The purpose of this module was to provide a flexible, organ system-based approach to teaching and learning musculoskeletal and dermatologic Spanish terminology, patient-centered communication skills, and sociocultural health contexts.MethodsAn 8-hour educational module for medical students was created to teach musculoskeletal and dermatologic medical communication skills in Spanish within the Hispanic/Latinx cultural context. Participants included 47 fourth-year medical students at an urban medical school with a starting minimum Spanish proficiency at the intermediate level. Faculty provided individualized feedback on speaking, listening, and writing performance of medical Spanish skills, and learners completed a written pre- and postassessment testing skills pertaining to communication domains of vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension as well as self-reported confidence levels.ResultsStudents demonstrated improvement in vocabulary, grammar, comprehension, and self-confidence of musculoskeletal and dermatologic medical Spanish topics. While students with overall lower starting proficiency levels (intermediate) scored lower on the premodule assessment compared to higher proficiency students (advanced/native), the postmodule assessment did not show significant differences in skills performance among these groups.DiscussionAn intermediate Spanish level prerequisite for this musculoskeletal and dermatologic module can result in skills improvement for all learners despite starting proficiency variability. Future study should evaluate learner clinical performance and integration of this module into other educational settings such as graduate medical education (e.g., orthopedic, rehabilitation, and dermatology residency programs) and other health professions (e.g., physical therapy and nursing).

Executive function, language dominance and literacy skills in Spanish-speaking language-minority children: A longitudinal study

In the United States, children whose home language is Spanish are at increased risk for the development of reading difficulties. Studies have reported a link between executive function (EF) and reading; few studies have examined this linkage in Spanish-speaking language-minority (LM) children. This longitudinal study examined the association between preschool EF and kindergarten reading-related skills in 241 Spanish-speaking LM children (M-age in preschool = 54.23 months, SD = 6.17). In preschool, children completed measures of inhibitory control (IC) and working memory (WM) in their dominant language, and early literacy skills in Spanish and English. In the fall of their kindergarten year, children completed code- and language-related literacy measures in both languages. A 2-factor model (IC and WM) accounted for children's preschool EF. Most zero-order correlations between EF factors and kindergarten outcomes in Spanish (rs = 0.03-0.40) and English (rs = 0.05-0.35) were statistically significant. For English-language outcomes, WM was more strongly associated with code-related skills and IC with language-related skills; for Spanish-language outcomes, WM was more strongly related to both code- and language-related skills than IC. There was little difference in the associations between EF and reading outcomes based on the language in which EF was measured (i.e., the child's dominant language). When controlling for early literacy skills in the same language as the kindergarten outcomes, EF contributed significant unique variance to kindergarten skills in English but not in Spanish. For Spanish language outcomes, early literacy skills appear to mediate the role of preschool EF. The results suggest that children's development in cognitive domains, such as EF, may have an important role in the acquisition of core early reading skills for Spanish-speaking LM children.

Empathy in Spanish Language Instruction

The most effective way to address the critical social and political issues confronting students today is to promote intercultural competence with empathy at the core of language instruction. Language has the ability to shape our thoughts and to alter our consciousness. As students view the world through the prism of cultural openness, they are able to immerse themselves in an alternate reality. This transformation is not only desirable in the practice of empathy, but it is also fundamental for building linguistic proficiency. When the topics of social justice struggles become central to the process of language acquisition, students levy communication skills in Spanish as tools to address the rich and meaningful content they encounter in class.

Semantic priming and reading skills among Spanish-speaking dual language learners

ABSTRACT Substantial research among bilingual adults indicates that exposure to words primes other semantically related words within and across languages, as well as the direct translation equivalents [e.g. Chen and Ng 1989. “Semantic Facilitation and Translation Priming Effects in Chinese-English Bilinguals.” Memory & Cognition 17: 454–462]. However, there is less research on semantic and translation priming among bilingual children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate semantic priming effects as an indicator of underlying lexical quality among Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs) in the U.S., including examination of whether semantic and translation priming effects were related to children’s reading-related skills. Ninety-five Spanish-speaking DLLs in second and fourth grade completed an eye-tracking semantic priming task along with measures of English and Spanish reading-related skills. Results indicated that there were consistent translation priming effects, with observed translation priming stronger from English to Spanish than from Spanish to English. Additionally, there were consistent within-English semantic priming effects. Results suggested that semantic priming effects were stronger for children with higher levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension than they were for children with lower levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical models of bilingual language processing, as well as the lexical quality hypothesis [e.g. Perfetti 2007. “Reading Ability: Lexical Quality to Comprehension.” Scientific Studies of Reading 11: 357–383].

Bi-literacy and motivation as predictors of bilingual students’ talk during classroom discussion

ABSTRACT This study investigated the relations between bilingual students’ amount of talk during classroom discussion, motivation, and self-reported bi-literacy skills (i.e. reading, writing skills in their native and school languages). Sixth-grade Spanish-English bilinguals in the United States (N = 121; M age = 12.119 years old; SD = 0.358) reported on their reading and writing skills in both Spanish and English. Self-reported motivation was assessed using the Motivation for Classroom Discussion Questionnaire (MCD-Q). Audio-recordings of bilinguals’ speech during their English Language Arts class period were used to measure amount of talk during classroom discussion. Results demonstrated that the relation between motivation and amount of talk during classroom discussion varied as a function of self-reported bi-literacy. At high levels of motivation, bi-literate students were more likely to engage in greater amounts of talk during classroom discussion than their non-bi-literate peers.

Effects of a Supplemental Spanish Phonological Awareness Intervention on Latinx Preschoolers' Dual Language Emergent Literacy Skills.

Purpose Preschoolers' phonological awareness (PA) and alphabet knowledge (AK) skills are two of the strongest predictors of future reading. Despite evidence that providing at-risk preschoolers with timely emergent literacy interventions can prevent academic difficulties, there is a scarcity of research focusing on Latinx preschoolers who are dual language learners. Despite evidence of benefits of providing Latinxs with Spanish emergent literacy instruction, few studies include preschoolers. This study examined the effects of a supplemental Spanish PA and AK intervention on the dual emergent literacy skills of at-risk Latinx preschoolers. Method A multiple probe design across four units of instruction evaluated the effects of a Spanish supplemental emergent literacy intervention that explicitly facilitated generalizations to English. Four Latinx preschoolers with limited emergent literacy skills in Spanish and English participated in this study. Bilingual researchers delivered scripted lessons targeting PA and AK skills in individual or small groups for 12-17 weeks. Results Children made large gains as each PA skill was introduced into intervention and generalized the PA skills they learned from Spanish to English. They also improved their English initial sound identification skills, a phonemic awareness task, when instruction was delivered in Spanish but with English words. Children made small to moderate gains in their Spanish letter naming and letter-sound correspondence skills and in generalizing this knowledge to English. Conclusion These findings provide preliminary evidence Latinx preschoolers who are dual language learners benefit from emergent literacy instruction that promotes their bilingual and biliterate development.

Alternative guidelines to design pedagogical resources with compounds in Spanish as a second language

The aim of this paper is to present and argue for alternative didactic resources with Spanish compounds. The working assumption is the idea that the principles that govern compound formation are crucial as a means of improving a number of student skills in L2 Spanish. Compounds constitute valuable lexical additions to a speaker’s repertoire, and to a wide range of communicative goals. They also show certain properties (e.g., meaning motivation, membership of marked registers) that render them especially useful for a number of learning targets, such as encouraging students’ metalinguistic reasoning, fostering their creativity, and stimulating their curiosity about Spanish language and culture. To guarantee diverse learning results, several pedagogical resources were analyzed, and the activities were tested with Chinese learners of Spanish. Methodological guidelines were followed akin to those used in the task-based approaches and gamified learning. The activities are mostly cooperative and aimed at working on both comprehension and production (auditive and written) around a grammatical topic (e.g. plural) or a communicative task (e.g. description).

Evaluación del estado de desplazamiento del zapoteco en Juchitán de Zaragoza, México

El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar el grado de desplazamiento lingüístico que presenta el zapoteco en la ciudad de Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca, México. Este trabajo se enmarca en la teoría de ecología de presiones, la cual indica que, en una situación de contacto lingüístico, existen relaciones asimétricas de poder que generan presiones negativas hacia los hablantes de la lengua autóctona, llevándolos a actuar en contra de la vitalidad de su propia lengua. En este estudio se realiza un análisis descriptivo del bilingüismo social de la comunidad de Juchitán con el propósito de identificar las habilidades lingüísticas de los hablantes en zapoteco y en español, así como los cambios que ambas lenguas han tenido intergeneracionalmente. La recolección de datos se realizó por medio de un cuestionario aplicado a una muestra de la población de 382 personas de un total de 74 825 habitantes. Durante este procedimiento, a los encuestados se les solicitó que evaluaran su nivel de competencia comunicativa tanto en zapoteco como en español. Los resultados muestran que el zapoteco presenta una reducción considerable de su transmisión intergeneracional, lo que se observa en el hecho de que la mayoría de los niños son hablantes monolingües del español y solo un número reducido de ellos puede entender el zapoteco. En contraste, el español se ha consolidado en todos los grupos generacionales, aún entre los adultos mayores. Debido a esto, se concluye que el zapoteco presenta un estado avanzado de desplazamiento lingüístico en la comunidad de Juchitán.

Home language and societal language skills in second-generation bilingual adults.

Research aims were (a) to test competing predictions regarding the levels of heritage and societal language proficiency among young adults who experienced early exposure to both languages, and (b) to identify sources of individual differences in degree of bilingualism. Participants comprised 65 Spanish-English bilinguals who reported using both languages on a weekly basis, 25 native English monolinguals, and 25 native Spanish monolinguals. Language and literacy skills were assessed with a battery of standardized and research-based assessments. Degree of bilingualism was calculated for the bilingual participants. Paired sample t-tests compared the bilinguals' skills in English to their skills in Spanish. Hierarchical regression evaluated factors related to their degree of bilingualism. Independent sample t-tests compared bilinguals' single-language skills to monolinguals. The bilinguals' English skills were stronger than their Spanish skills on every measure. Thus, degree of bilingualism was largely a function of level of Spanish skill and was associated with concurrent Spanish exposure. Bilinguals' English skills were not different from the monolinguals except in speed of lexical access. The bilinguals' Spanish skills were significantly lower than the Spanish monolinguals on every measure except in accuracy judgments for grammatically correct sentences. Previous studies of bilingual adults have focused on sequential bilinguals and previous studies of heritage language speakers have focused on their grammatical skills. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to assess a wide range of functionally relevant skills in adults with early exposure to a heritage and societal language. These findings demonstrate that early exposure to and continued use of a home language does not interfere with the achievement of societal language and literacy skills, while also demonstrating that even a widely and frequently used home language may not be acquired to the same skill level as a societal language used in school.

Off to a good start: Early Spanish-language processing efficiency supports Spanish- and English-language outcomes at 4½ years in sequential bilinguals.

Many Latino children in the U.S. speak primarily Spanish at home with few opportunities for exposure to English before entering school. For monolingual children, the strongest early predictor of later school success is oral language skill developed before kindergarten. Less is known about how early oral language skills support later learning in sequential bilingual children. A question with wide-reaching significance is whether skill in a child's first language (L1) supports later learning in a second language (L2). In this longitudinal study of sequential Spanish-English bilinguals, we assessed oral language skills in Spanish at 2years through parent reports of vocabulary size and children's real-time language processing efficiency (Accuracy, RT) in the 'looking-while-listening' (LWL) task. At 4½years, we assessed language outcomes in both Spanish and English using standardized tests. Reported relative exposure to each language was significantly correlated with language outcomes in Spanish and English. Within-language relations were observed between Spanish vocabulary size and processing efficiency at 2years and later Spanish-language outcomes. Critically, across-language relations were also observed: Children with stronger Spanish-language processing efficiency at 2years had stronger English-language skills at 4½years, controlling for socioeconomic status and exposure to English. Children's early language processing efficiency in Spanish is associated with stronger real-time information processing skills that support maintenance of Spanish and learning in English when these children enter school. These results support the recommendation that primarily Spanish-speaking families should engage in activities that promote children's Spanish-language skills while also seeking opportunities for children to be exposed to English.