Spanish Learners Research Articles

Effect of perceptual training without feedback on bilingual speech perception

This study examines the effect of perceptual training without feedback on the discrimination of the Spanish stop-approximant contrasts [b]–[B], [d]–[ð], and [g]–[y]. Of interest is if the aural repetition of target stimuli improves discrimination accuracy, how many repetitions are needed to observe a significant increase in perceptual discrimination accuracy, and if there is an effect of contrast type. Perception of the Spanish target phones was assessed in adult native (L1) Spanish speakers (n = 10) and L1 English bilingual learners of L2 Spanish (n = 23) via VCV nonwords over six blocks of 10 trials, featuring Spanish approximants and voiced stops in an AX discrimination task. Results indicate a significant effect of aural stimulus repetition on discrimination accuracy scores improvement. Significant improvements were observed for all three contrasts, with discrimination gradually improving across blocks. The data indicated that the [y]–[g] contrast was the most difficult contrast and exhibited the highest rate of discrimination accuracy improvement. Discrimination accuracy score improvements were also significantly larger for L1 English listeners in comparison with the L1 Spanish listeners for this contrast.

Developing explicit and implicit L2 knowledge with Duolingo’s input-based features: Case studies of L2 Spanish learning

In this single-case study with a quasi-experimental design, we set out to examine the role of two input-based features of the language learning app Duolingo on learners’ development of implicit and explicit second language (L2) knowledge. We investigated the effect of Duolingo’s Stories feature and Podcast feature on two Spanish-L2 learners’ performance on a battery of implicit and explicit L2 knowledge tests. Once a week, over a four-week period using these input-based features, both participants repeatedly performed oral narrative tasks, timed and untimed grammaticality judgment tasks, and metalinguistic knowledge tests. The participant assigned to the Podcast condition showed meager gains in productive implicit knowledge (measured by oral narrative tasks) but decreased in receptive explicit knowledge (measured by untimed grammaticality judgment tasks). The participant assigned to the Stories condition showed a large increase in receptive implicit knowledge of Spanish (measured by timed grammaticality judgment tasks). Neither participant showed meaningful gains in the measure of productive explicit knowledge (measured by metalinguistic knowledge tasks). Although there was a slight increase in receptive explicit knowledge for the participant using Stories, the data from both participants discount the idea that app-based mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) prioritizes receptive explicit L2 knowledge, at least when considering these novel input-based features of Duolingo. These findings add nuance to previous research showing that the primary outcome of MALL app use is receptive explicit L2 knowledge.

<b>English Language Anxiety in Higher Education: A Case Study of Spanish Students</b>

This article examines the anxiety of French-speaking students in the Spanish Department at the University of Yaoundé I (Cameroon) while learning English. We used quantitative and qualitative methods. The theoretical framework adopted for this study is the Affective Filter Hypothesis developed by Krashen (2009). The results showed that anxiety is a barrier that negatively affects the learning of English by French-speaking students. Several factors were found to be at the root of this anxiety: language typology, language level, the influence of French, personality, the reactions of others, and beliefs. We also found that students were anxious about learning Spanish, but this anxiety affected them positively. The paper suggests that learners should be in permanent contact with the English language, teachers and students should develop language tolerance by focusing on the message, not the language form, and teachers should include digital technologies to lower anxiety.

Mobile-enhanced virtual exchanges through asynchronous video interaction: Learners as ethnographers in the L2 classroom to promote intercultural communicative competence

This practice report focuses on the integration of virtual exchange (VE) with mobileassisted language learning (MALL), where learners act as ethnographers within the context of language education. This VE model harnesses mobile technology capabilities to exchange personal and immersive cultural insights through asynchronous video content using Flip.com. The model consists of three integrated sections: Preparation, Intercultural Exchange, and Reflection. This report covers a pilot implementation of the mobile-enhanced VE model to evaluate the outcomes on Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC). The project lasted eight weeks, covering various topics, such as greetings, food, and education. Participants were L2 learners of Spanish in the United States and L1 Spanish speakers in Spain. Outcomes were evaluated through a survey where students in the United States self-assessed their perceived ICC gains. This survey, grounded in Byram’s (2009) ICC model, measured changes in students’ attitudes, knowledge, skills of interpreting and relating, skills of interaction, and critical cultural awareness. Students reported substantial improvements in all areas of ICC, highlighting enhanced engagement and understanding of the target culture facilitated by the mobileenhanced VE model. This report provides insights for the incorporation of mobile technology for VE projects in L2 settings, emphasizing its role in expanding global interconnectedness and deepening intercultural learning among learners by offering a more dynamic, authentic, and immersive learning experience.

Modelling the effects of the reading medium on L2 Spanish reading emotions: The moderating role of individual difference variables

While existing research has documented that the reading medium significantly impacts language learners’ reading comprehension processes and outcomes, empirical evidence on how the reading medium influences reading emotions is lacking. The present study contributes to the field by investigating whether reading emotions (i.e. enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom) of learners of Spanish as a second language (L2) differ between mobile-assisted and paper-based reading processes. In addition, it explores whether individual difference variables (i.e. L2 Spanish proficiency and preferences for the reading medium) moderate the relationship between the reading medium and reading emotions. The instruments used are reading comprehension tests and questionnaire surveys administered to a sample of 245 first-year college students majoring in Spanish. Paired samples t-tests indicate that L2 Spanish learners perceive more enjoyment and less negative emotions when reading from a paper-based format than those from a mobile-assisted mode. In addition, moderation analyses indicate that both L2 Spanish proficiency and preferences for the medium are moderators of the relationships between the medium and reading emotions. More proficient L2 Spanish readers perceive more enjoyment and less anxiety and boredom when reading from paper than those from mobile phones; less proficient L2 readers demonstrate the opposite pattern. Students’ preference for mobile-assisted language reading would significantly enhance their reading enjoyment while reducing reading anxiety and boredom when they engage in such a type of reading mode. These results imply that individual differences are crucial factors in shaping students’ emotions across different reading modes. Reasons for differences in reading emotions across mediums and the moderating roles of individual variables are discussed.

Language learners’ expectations and satisfaction level in a telecollaboration project

The aim of this paper is to analyse the data collected in a six-week telecollaboration project between 9 Spanish-speaking learners of English and 5 international students from the Erasmus+ programme, who engaged in both synchronous and asynchronous activities with 10 English-speaking learners of Spanish. Data was gathered through a pre-questionnaire enquiring about learners’ expectations at the beginning of the project and a post-questionnaire seeking information about students’ satisfaction at the end of the project. The results revealed that students’ expectations mostly aligned with the perceived benefits after carrying out the exchange. However, some of the participants found it difficult to meet on a weekly basis with their virtual partners as was required. This suggests that students participating in telecollaboration projects may need further guidance and help to plan their meetings. Despite this, most of the comments received at the end of the project were positive and showed participants’ overall satisfaction.

Emotion regulation elicits cross-linguistically shared and language-specific forms of linguistic distancing

Cognitively reappraising a stressful experience—reinterpreting the situation to blunt its emotional impact—is effective for regulating negative emotions. English speakers have been shown to engage in linguistic distancing when reappraising, spontaneously using words that are more abstract or impersonal. Across two preregistered studies (N = 299), we investigated whether such shifts in language use generalize to Spanish, a language proposed to offer unique tools for expressing psychological distance. Bilingual speakers of Spanish and English and a comparison group of English monolinguals transcribed their thoughts in each of their languages while responding naturally to negative images or reappraising them. Reappraisal shifted markers of psychological distance common to both languages (e.g., reduced use of “I”/“yo”), as well as Spanish-specific markers (e.g., greater use of “estar”: “to be” for temporary states). Whether these linguistic shifts reflected successful emotion regulation depended on language experience: in exploratory analyses, the common markers were more strongly linked to reduced negative affect for late than early Spanish learners, and one Spanish-specific marker (“estar”) also predicted reduced negative affect for early learners. Our findings suggest that people distance their language in both cross-linguistically shared and language-specific ways when regulating their emotions.

Examining beginner Spanish learners' interactions during text chat: Self‐monitoring and the impact of metacognitive instruction

AbstractText chat facilitates L2 use by providing learners with extended time to plan, monitor, and process production during interactional tasks. However, learners may not naturally take advantage of these affordances, especially for providing peer feedback. This study used video‐enhanced chat scripts to examine the behavior of beginner L2 Spanish learners (n = 46) completing decision‐consensus tasks via text chat, investigating how learners interacted with the medium to self‐monitor by deleting text before sending. Learners were also differentially assigned to receive metacognitive instruction (MI) to learn ways to provide corrective feedback to peers or engage in language‐related episodes (LREs). Results showed that all learners frequently used text chat's affordances to self‐correct and also integrated technology to resolve LREs (creating technology‐assisted LREs). However, MI did not have a significant impact on the production of corrective feedback or LREs, potentially due to attentional resources expended during self‐correction. These findings suggest that completing task‐based activities within text chat may be beneficial for promoting beginner learners' linguistic processing and integrating technology to facilitate discussion of L2 form but less impactful for promoting peer feedback.

Tense and aspect in the interlanguage of Slavic speakers learning Romance languages

ABSTRACT The study addresses the research gap of how being a speaker of a Slavic language influences the ability to convey tempo-aspectual meanings in Romance languages by examining personal and impersonal narratives delivered in written and spoken mode by learners of L3 Spanish and L3 Italian with L1 Slovak and L2 English. Narratives are analysed following the methods of interlanguage analysis proposed by Ellis and Barkhuizen [(2005). Analysing learner language. Oxford University Press] and Salaberry and Comajoan [(2013). Research design and methodology in studies on L2 tense and aspect. De Gruyter Mouton], such as coding for grounding, frequency analysis of tense forms and lexical aspectual classes, etc. Following the ideas presented by Bayley (2013, Data analysis: Quantitative approaches. In M. R. Salaberry & L. Comajoan (Eds.), Research design andmethodology in studies on L2 tense and aspect (pp. 357–390). De Gruyter Mouton), binomial logistic regression models were built which showed that (a) the combination of discourse grounding and lexical aspect is of predictive power regarding the appropriateness of participants’ choices of morphological marking; (b) the distributional characteristics of morphological marking on telic predicates differs from activities and statives. One of the main differences compared to the results of previous studies, conducted on speakers of Germanic languages, is that the data did not provide enough evidence for morphological marking being used to convey primarily temporal distinctions (see Salaberry, 1999, The development of past tense verbal morphology in classroom L2 Spanish. Applied Linguistics, 20(2), 151–178. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.2.151; Wiberg, E. (1996). Reference to past events in bilingual Italian-Swedish children of school age. Linguistics, 34(5), 1087–1114. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1996.34.5.1087]) and presented the marking of telic predicates in foreground with perfective morphology as consistent, disregarding the level of participants’ performance.

Web-assisted instruction for teaching and learning EFL phonetics to Spanish learners: Effectiveness, perceptions and challenges

Research has established that phonetic training is particularly challenging for learners in EFL contexts. Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training (CAPT) resources have proved to enhance learners’ perceptual and productive phonetic capacities. No prior study, however, has evaluated the effectiveness of EPSSML (English Pronunciation for Speakers of Spanish Multimedia Lab) (https://www.usc.gal/multimlab/), a CAPT tool for web-assisted, blended instruction (WABI), while simultaneously examining the students’ and instructors’ perceptions in order to identify the emerging and existing needs. Statistical significance tests applied to course results from 504 Spanish university students supported the effectiveness of EPSSML, which was reported to increase students’ academic achievements and learning motivation, fostering course participation and empowering learners with the necessary capabilities and attitudes to decide not to drop the class. Additionally, questionnaires administered to 127 Post-WABI students showed that they enjoyed and were very interested in EPSSML and WABI. In the case of EFL university instructors, 128 responses revealed that most of them also rated the tool very highly, featuring specialized open web-sites with free downloadable materials and gamified learning pathways as the “ideal CAPT resources”.

Affordances in the international service-learning context for Spanish learners

Since the initial application of the ‘affordances’ concept to the context of language learning by van Lier, relatively few studies have continued to explore its implications for second language (L2) learning. This study examines from an emic perspective the affordances that 13 Spanish learners in a study abroad context perceived in their international ­service-learning (ISL) experience. Results from weekly reflection essays and an exit interview suggest that their affordances for this particular ISL are cultural, linguistic, social/emotive, interactional, and combinations thereof, with cultural affordances highlighted most frequently by participants. These results depict ISL as a holistic context for language learning in a study abroad program.

Culture, Paralanguage, and Learning Spanish as a Foreign Language During Pandemic

In general terms, globalization has greatly contributed to a wider diffusion of languages, religions, and traditions, as well as a better understanding of the multicultural nature of countries around the world. It also highlights the importance of cultural diversity in the integration processes within contemporary societies. Motivated by this reflection and to analyze the importance of nonverbal communication in communicative interaction and the inclusion of functional tasks in the learning of Spanish as a foreign language during the pandemic, this research has adopted a qualitative approach framed under the ethnographic method. This study utilized in-depth interviews and participant observation as techniques to collect information from online classes and workshops. Through the present analysis, the significance of paralanguage in communicative interaction and, consequently, in the learning processes was affirmed. Specifically, it was found that the communicative interferences reported by students when interacting with both the teacher and their classmates are largely explained by deficiencies in the use of paralanguage. These deficiencies contribute to the appearance of communicative interferences, which constitute causal factors of erroneous interpretations and incorrect messages when certain speakers interact with others. Among the preventive measures to address this scenario are the following aspects: improving the explanations provided by teachers and implementing processes of experimentation and practical application of what has been learned in real situations.

That-trace effects in Najdi Arabic L2 learners of English

Abstract The current study is a partial replication of Kim and Goodall (2024), who tested competing predictions of two prominent accounts of that-trace effects, which are argued to emerge due to either syntactic constraints or considerations of the production system. To tease apart these possibilities, Kim and Goodall examine L2 sensitivity to that-trace effects, as the two accounts implicitly have different expectations regarding L2 performance. Their results showed a non-native pattern of acceptability judgments for Korean and Spanish learners of English, whose L1s do not display that-trace effects, which are argued to support a production-based account. The current study extends their experiment to Nadji Arabic L2 learners of English, whose L1 critically exhibits that-trace effects, allowing us to probe whether previous findings can be accounted for by processing difficulties or L1 background. Our results indicated that despite L2 learners’ native-like sensitivity at the group level, lower proficiency was associated with non-native-like subject extraction effects, in line with Kim and Goodall’s results. Overall, findings from an acceptability judgment task suggest that L2 sensitivity to that-trace effects does not involve transfer of a syntactic constraint, but is something that develops with proficiency, more in line with a production-based account.

Comparative Analysis of Cognates in Two Datasets in Spanish Teaching in China

This paper aims to conduct a comparative study of two glossary compilations between two programs of Spanish as a Foreign Language (SFL) teaching in China, through statistical analysis and a survey of familiarity with cognates among ELE students in China. Specifically, we investigate: (1) the lexical difference between two SFL teaching systems: one nationalized in China and the other at the international level (CEFR); (2) the awareness of bilingual cognates for Spanish learners in China. The results indicate that: (1) the vocabulary list nationalized in China has more high frequency words than that of CEFR; (2) in L3 Spanish learners, the survey did not find an awareness of cognate, but rather an high-frequency effect in the lexicon. This study serves to emphasize the status of cognates for research and teaching in SFL, as well as to provide a reference for future lexical studies of SFL both in China and internationally.

Two Decades of Medical Spanish Education: A Narrative Review

Purpose : Education on medical Spanish, defined as the use of Spanish by clinicians for communication with patients, has proliferated rapidly since the first guidelines were published in 2008. This study aims to characterize the scope of the field, identify gaps, and propose emerging questions for future study. Method : The authors conducted a narrative review of the medical Spanish education literature published from 2000 to 2023. First, a comprehensive search algorithm was developed across three databases (Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science Core Collection) and conducted on August 2, 2023. Two reviewers then independently assessed articles for inclusion/exclusion and subsequent categorization of included articles. Results : The search identified 1,303 articles, and authors added ten articles from other sources. A total of 138 individual articles were included in the final categorization and sub-analysis. There has been an upward trend in the number of articles published yearly since 2000. Most publications were educational interventions (67/138, 49%), followed by commentaries/perspectives (27/138, 20%), proficiency testing (17/138, 13%), needs assessments (16/138, 12%), reviews (6/138, 4%), and vocabulary analyses (5/138, 4%). Slightly over half of publications (72/138, 52%) were centered on physicians or physicians-in-training, with 23 (17%) articles applicable across health professions, and a few focused on pharmacists, nurses, physical therapists, psychologists, physician assistants, and genetic counselors. The vast majority (119/138, 86%) were published in medical/scientific journals and 19 (14%) in language/humanities journals. All but two first authors were affiliated with United States institutions, representing 30 states and Puerto Rico. Conclusions : Over the past two decades, many medical Spanish educational interventions have been published, and several assessment tools have been developed and validated. Gaps remain in evaluation data to demonstrate course effectiveness, the use of pedagogical frameworks to guide curricula, faculty development opportunities, and the role of heritage Spanish learners. Future work should address medical Spanish gaps in health professions and medical specialties, explore patient-engaged approaches to research, and evaluate longitudinal outcomes.

Salgo de casa? Salgo a casa? Salgo la casa? Analysis of the crosslinguistic influence on preposition use in motion verb constructions by multilingual German learners of Spanish

The use of prepositions is one of the most difficult grammar topics for Spanish learners. The high frequency prepositions ‘a’ (‘to, at, on’), ‘de’ (‘from, of’) and ‘en’ (‘in, on, into’) are often confused or omitted, especially in motion verb constructions (e.g., Campillos Llanos, 2014). This can be due to their polysemous character and the low salience. In addition, crosslinguistic influence (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008) from the first language as well as additional acquired foreign language(s) play a significant role.In order to analyse the complexity of interlanguage phenomena in the construction [motion verb + a/de/en + noun] to improve acquisition in Spanish classes, it is necessary to study authentic learner data. In this paper, I will discuss the results of an explorative pilot study on crosslinguistic influence carried out at a German grammar school in the federal state Baden-Württemberg in order to find out after which verbs of motion these prepositions are omitted or confused, how often this occurs, and which languages might influence it. The results of two groups of pupils at beginner level with the mean age of 14,03 are compared: The first group (n = 21) learns Spanish as the third foreign language, in addition to English and French, while the second group (n = 16) learns Spanish as the second foreign language after English. Both groups learn the named foreign languages in an instructed setting at school.The pilot study reveals that the prepositions ‘a’ and ‘de’ are much more often confused or omitted in the construction types [llegar/volver/venir + a + noun] (‘arrive/come back/come + to/in + noun’) and [salir/ir + de + noun] (‘leave/go + noun’) compared to [ir + a + noun] (‘go to + noun’). A possible explanation is positive and negative intra- and interlingual transfer of equivalent constructions from different languages. These results form a hypothesis basis that a systematic application of Pedagogical Construction Grammar (Boas, 2022; De Knop and Gilquin, 2016) and multilingual didactics (Fäcke and Meiβner, 2019; García et al., 2020) in Spanish classes to teach these polysemous prepositions could probably be helpful to avoid errors.

L2 Spanish clitics among Brazilian Portuguese-speaking learners: the predictive role of lexical knowledge

We examined the acquisition of third-person accusative clitics (e.g., lo, la, los, las) in L2 Spanish among Brazilian Portuguese (BP) speakers. In BP, the animacy of the referent is the main feature constraining accusative pronoun use while, in Spanish, animacy does not affect clitic realization. We tested Lardiere’s (2008; 2009) Feature Reassembly Hypothesis (FRH), Schwartz & Sprouse’s (1996) Full Transfer/Full Access hypothesis (FT/FA), and the suitability of productive vocabulary knowledge as a proxy for overall proficiency and its predictive power for the acquisition of clitics. 74 BP-speaking L2 Spanish learners and a comparison group of 23 native Spanish speakers completed a language background questionnaire, a vocabulary test (Prueba Léxica de Español y Portugués/Prova Léxica de Espanhol e Português, PLEP), an elicited production task, and an acceptability judgment task. Only the L2 Spanish participants completed the tasks in both languages. Our findings are consistent with the FRH, showing that the participants successfully disassemble animacy features from their L1 when acquiring the non-animacy-driven clitics in Spanish. However, animacy effects were found in the L2 production data but not in their receptive grammatical knowledge. Furthermore, animacy effects were not dependent on proficiency as no interactions between these factors were found, thus rejecting the existence of a full transfer stage.

A Research Review on the Impact of English Language Transfer on the Spanish Learning of Chinese Students

In the diverse context of multilingual learning, language transfer has garnered significant attention. Spanish, the third most widely spoken language globally, after Chinese and English, is being increasingly explored by learners from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The stark differences between Chinese and Spanish create an inevitable influence on the learning process of Chinese students. Their existing knowledge of English as a second language plays a crucial role in shaping their learning of Spanish. As a result, English language transfer has become a crucial topic in the study of Chinese students' learning of Spanish. The purpose of this paper is to analyze previous studies and explore the effects of English language transfer on Spanish grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation Exploring the impact of English language transfer on Chinese students' learning of Spanish can offer valuable insights into the complexities of the language learning process. Moreover, it can provide essential theoretical guidance and practical recommendations for students' Spanish learning. Ultimately, the exploration results can drive the development and advancement of Spanish teaching practices, benefiting both students and educators alike.

Refusals in Japanese and Spanish: Pragmatic Transfer in L2

The article presents a heuristic approach to studying the strategies of refusal employed by advanced Japanese learners of Spanish as a foreign language when compared with those of native speakers of Spanish and of Japanese. It examines responses of refusal to requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions while observing the linguistic phenomena of pragmatic transfer used by the speakers. We administered a discourse completion to elicit refusal strategies from participants. The data include 1101 strategies employed in 432 responses formulated by 54 participants comprising advanced Japanese learners of Spanish, native speakers of Spanish, and native speakers of Japanese We found that linguistic ability among Japanese learners correlated positively with pragmatic transfer. The findings demonstrate how cultural priming and the degree of freedom with which learners prompt their responses are interrelated within their mental pragmatic interface in given situations.

Syntactic engagement of new words: The garden-path method applied to track sensitivity to structural ambiguity

This article proposes an innovative approach to examining garden-path (GP) effects in sentence processing. It applies GP effects as a method to a new domain, specifically to syntactic engagement of recently learned verbs. We tested twenty-seven English native speakers and twenty Spanish learners of English to verify method validity. Three main components characterise the method, namely training of new word meaning through definitions and example sentences, eye-tracking while reading plausible and implausible GP sentences after sleep consolidation, and a meaning recall test. We also examined if participants’ phonological working memory and vocabulary size play a role in how they syntactically engage new words. Results showed that recently learned verbs can elicit syntactic engagement in both native and nonnative readers. Both vocabulary size and phonological working memory capacity could predict ambiguity reprocessing, irrespective of language group. These results indicate that garden pathing can reliably signal effort to detect and resolve subject-object ambiguities in both first language (Frazier & Rayner, 1982; Pickering & Traxler, 1998) and second language readers (Chen et al., 2021, Jegerski, 2012). This feasibility study is a pioneering attempt to map new vocabulary knowledge as a window into emergent structural representations. The significance of this method lies in its potential to track syntactic engagement of new lexis, while accounting for individual differences, and following the principle that to know a word entails knowing its form, meaning, as well as its grammatical use (Nation, 2001).