Crewed Space Research Articles

Experiments with Isolation: Past, Present, and Future

This paper provides a review of experiments with extended confinement and isolation of small groups of volunteers in controlled environments. These studies provide opportunities to test approaches and tools enhancing the systems of biomedical support to space crews and to lay the groundwork of remote autonomous space missions in future. This review describes scenarios, goals, objectives, and main results of the long-duration isolation projects carried out at the Ground-Based Test Facility of the Institute for Biomedical Problems (IBMP) since 1960s and a forthcoming series of the Sirius analog studies. The authors elaborate on the fundamental principles of successful and productive accomplishment of this type of projects.

Application of Computer-Assisted Technologies to Optimization of Medical Care Measures in Piloted Space Exploration Missions

The system of medical care used in the Russian segment of the International Space Station in space missions is directed to support space crews in orbital flights. The system gives the priority to the telemedicine rather than medical procedures performed by the crew autonomously. The long-term experience showed effectiveness of the existing system for medical support of orbital flights; however, travels beyond the low-Earth’s orbit add substantial limitations calling for reconsideration of approaches to the crew medical care. Among the special features of these missions will be increasing time of autonomy. There is a high probability that crews will have to make medical decisions by themselves and computer-assisted systems are likely to be a proper tool of health care. The software of medical inventory control and practice guidance developed in the Institute for Biomedical Problems (IBMP) enhances quality of the day-to-day use of medical resources at the Russian Orbital Segment and can serve as a prototype of a medical decision support system within the intelligent circuit aboard future piloted spacecraft.

The Plant Health Monitoring System of the EDEN ISS Space Greenhouse in Antarctica During the 2018 Experiment Phase.

The EDEN ISS project has the objective to test key technologies and processes for higher plant cultivation with a focus on their application to long duration spaceflight. A mobile plant production facility was designed and constructed by an international consortium and deployed to the German Antarctic Neumayer Station III. Future astronaut crews, even if well-trained and provided with detailed procedures, cannot be expected to have the competencies needed to deal with all situations that will arise during a mission. Future space crews, as they are today, will be supported by expert backrooms on the ground. For future space-based greenhouses, monitoring the crops and the plant growth system increases system reliability and decreases the crew time required to maintain them. The EDEN ISS greenhouse incorporates a Plant Health Monitoring System to provide remote support for plant status assessment and early detection of plant stress or disease. The EDEN ISS greenhouse has the capability to automatically capture and distribute images from its suite of 32 high-definition color cameras. Collected images are transferred over a satellite link to the EDEN ISS Mission Control Center in Bremen and to project participants worldwide. Upon reception, automatic processing software analyzes the images for anomalies, evaluates crop performance, and predicts the days remaining until harvest of each crop tray. If anomalies or sub-optimal performance is detected, the image analysis system generates automatic warnings to the agronomist team who then discuss, communicate, or implement countermeasure options. A select number of Dual Wavelength Spectral Imagers have also been integrated into the facility for plant health monitoring to detect potential plant stress before it can be seen on the images taken by the high-definition color cameras. These imagers and processing approaches are derived from traditional space-based imaging techniques but permit new discoveries to be made in a facility like the EDEN ISS greenhouse in which, essentially, every photon of input and output can be controlled and studied. This paper presents a description of the EDEN ISS Plant Health Monitoring System, basic image analyses, and a summary of the results from the initial year of Antarctic operations.

Shooting for the Moon.

![][1] The first Apollo 11 lunar sample to be analyzed in a laboratory, photographed on 27 July 1969 in a vacuum chamber at NASA's Lunar Receiving Laboratory. PHOTO: NASA/NOVAPIX Fifty years ago, on 20 July 1969, the first humans landed on the surface of another world, when the Apollo 11 lunar module touched down on the Moon. A few hours later, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin took the first steps onto an alien surface while Michael Collins orbited overhead in the command module. The motivation for this milestone of space exploration was geopolitical, not scientific. The Apollo program was intended to demonstrate technological supremacy during the Cold War space race. Yet Apollo 11 and the five additional crewed landings that followed have left a rich scientific legacy. They carried a variety of instruments, including seismometers, magnetometers, and retroreflectors for laser ranging observations. Perhaps their greatest scientific value lies in the 382 kg of rocks and regolith (lunar soil) that were brought back to Earth. Laboratory analysis of these samples revolutionized our understanding of how the Moon, Earth, and other planets formed. Improved technology and advances in planetary science mean that the samples are still actively studied today. Funding for lunar exploration soon ran out. No humans have traveled beyond low Earth orbit since Apollo 17 in 1972, and even robotic missions to the Moon ceased between 1976 and 1990. The 21st century has seen a renewed interest in exploring our nearest neighbor, in part because a growing number of space agencies and private companies now have the capability to reach it. Some have plans to return humans to the lunar surface over the next decade. Even more ambitious are ideas for permanent lunar bases, such as astronomical observatories, which could reap a rich scientific harvest. One day humans will return to the Moon. Until then, the Apollo landings stand alone at the pinnacle of crewed space exploration. [1]: /embed/graphic-1.gif

Design and Operational Considerations for Human Spaceflight Occupant Safety

Abstract This article is a result of a systematic review research of an existing, crewed commercial space transportation (CST)-relevant, publicly accessible documentation counting 300 resources. Ou...

Brain ventricular volume changes induced by long-duration spaceflight

Long-duration spaceflight induces detrimental changes in human physiology. Its residual effects and mechanisms remain unclear. We prospectively investigated the changes in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volume of the brain ventricular regions in space crew by means of a region of interest analysis on structural brain scans. Cosmonaut MRI data were investigated preflight (n = 11), postflight (n = 11), and at long-term follow-up 7 mo after landing (n = 7). Post hoc analyses revealed a significant difference between preflight and postflight values for all supratentorial ventricular structures, i.e., lateral ventricle (mean % change ± SE = 13.3 ± 1.9), third ventricle (mean % change ± SE = 10.4 ± 1.1), and the total ventricular volume (mean % change ± SE = 11.6 ± 1.5) (all P < 0.0001), with higher volumes at postflight. At follow-up, these structures did not quite reach baseline levels, with still residual increases in volume for the lateral ventricle (mean % change ± SE = 7.7 ± 1.6; P = 0.0009), the third ventricle (mean % change ± SE = 4.7 ± 1.3; P = 0.0063), and the total ventricular volume (mean % change ± SE = 6.4 ± 1.3; P = 0.0008). This spatiotemporal pattern of CSF compartment enlargement and recovery points to a reduced CSF resorption in microgravity as the underlying cause. Our results warrant more detailed and longer longitudinal follow-up. The clinical impact of our findings on the long-term cosmonauts' health and their relation to ocular changes reported in space travelers requires further prospective studies.

Team performance in space crews: Houston, we have a teamwork problem

Space crews venturing beyond low Earth orbit will experience unprecedented levels of autonomy and unpredictable challenges. Mission success will require effective teamwork. How do teamwork capabilities change over time in isolation and confinement? To explore this question, 4, 4-member crews who participated in the 30-day campaign of the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA)'s Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA) were observed. Crews endured isolation, confinement, and communication delays. Teamwork capabilities were observed along four critical dimensions: generate (creativity tasks), choose (intellective tasks), negotiate (cognitive conflict tasks), and execute (psychomotor tasks). A battery of team task was administered requiring the crew to generate, to choose, and to negotiate. Execute performance was assessed using NASA's multi-mission space exploration vehicle (MMSEV) task. Team task batteries were performed on Mission Days 11, 16, and 30. Execute performance was assessed on 18 of 30 days. Findings show behavioral team performance (cognitive conflict and psychomotor tasks) increases over time, whereas conceptual team performance (creativity and intellective tasks) declines. Implications of these results were considered for future research and the design of countermeasures that support crew functioning.

Changing the Paradigm on Human Enhancements: The Special Case of Modifications to Counter Bone Loss for Manned Mars Missions

Among the greatest obstacles to the implementation of crewed space missions are human biological limitations. Difficulties were always envisioned in relation to both Earth's moon and Mars but more so for Mars because long spaceflights would also expose crew to prolonged microgravity conditions, in addition to radiation. The result could well be osteoporosis, bone fractures, and disability. In this article, we do not contest the validity of bone loss studies. Rather, we question a seemingly tacit assumption about the immutability of human nature. Indeed, new, invasive, and noninvasive techniques of human enhancement already allow humans to enjoy modifications that will enable lengthy space missions. The alteration of human DNA has not only aided cancer patients but, for example, by using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing procedure, can also help to prevent damage to limbs and joints that a prolonged Mars mission could cause for the crew. Possible ethical objections to this solution are discussed, and trade-offs between risks and benefits outlined.

Training for Long-Duration Space Missions: A Literature Review into Skill Retention and Generalizability

On long-duration space missions, skill retention and generalizability become ever more important as mission length increases, for it is through these capabilities that astronaut crews achieve autonomy. Because simulators are used extensively in all types of training, the effects of simulator fidelity on skill retention and generalizability are paramount to understand. A literature survey was performed to identify current research gaps in skill retention and generalizability. The survey identified a need for a structured and quantifiable approach to characterize skill decay, for example, using a cybernetic approach. Such an approach would allow for gaining a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which skill decay operates. Furthermore, the literature survey identified three research gaps and opportunities for future research: (1) developing skill decay functions provides theoretical insights into skill decay and could allow for several practical applications, such as planning refresher training, (2) investigating the effects of simulator fidelity on skill decay functions could allow for better simulator utilization during training, and (3) investigating the generalizability of skills learned in initial training to other tasks could provide space crews with greater autonomy.

Space motion sickness: A common neurovestibular dysfunction in microgravity.

This article presents a review of the current findings related to neurovestibular physiology, aetiology, and proposed theories on space motion sickness (SMS) during acute and sustained exposure to microgravity. The review discusses the available treatment options including medication and nonpharmacological countermeasure methods that help to prevent the development of SMS in weightlessness. Ground-based simulations using virtual reality, flight simulations, and Barany's chairs can be applied to study SMS and demonstrate its signs and symptoms to space crew members. Space motion sickness has been observed in approximately 70% of astronauts within the first 72 h in microgravity, having in general an instantaneous onset of signs and symptoms. Stomach discomfort, nausea, vomiting, pallor, cold sweating, salivation, tachypnoea, belching, fatigue, drowsiness, and stress hormone release have been documented. This can have detrimental effects on the well-being of astronauts in the initial phase of a space mission. Mental and physical performance may be affected, jeopardizing operational procedures and mission safety.

Efficiency of Electrical Tranquilization of the Central Nervous System in Combination with Vestibular Training to Improve the Statokinetic Stability

Improvement of statokinetic stability is a pressing problem of aviation medicine in view of progress in aviation engineering. As the speed and maneuver capability of aircrafts grew, the conflict between a continuous increase in available power and constant psychophysiological abilities of the human body becomes inevitably harder. Statistics evidences that 49.0% of aviation accidents are due to erroneous actions of pilots. Today, tough mental activity is involved in an aviator’s labor, while the body is affected by a broad variety of flight-related factors. Information flow analysis, instant decision making, and control of aircraft strain the psychophysiological human abilities to their limit. All aircrew members must keep being professionally effective throughout the mission. This circumstance warrants the development of appropriate means and methods to improve the statokinetic stability in air and space crews. The objective of this work was to study the psychophysiological dynamics during statokinetic perturbations prior to and after a course of electrical tranquilization of the central nervous system (CNS) in combination with modified Yarotsky’s test (MYT). Statokinetic perturbations were modeled using a continuous Coriolis acceleration accumulation test (CAAT) in a rotating chair. The indices under study included the maximum CAAT tolerance time and the strengths of vestibular sensory, vestibular vegetative, and vestibular somatic reactions. Functional characteristics were tested using complex functional computer stabilography (CFCS). An analysis of the results led to the conclusion that a course of CNS electrical tranquilization in combination with MYT is highly efficient.

Automated Contingency Management for Water Recycling System

To enable effective management, planning, and operations for future missions that involve a crewed space habitat, operational support must be migrated from Earth to the habitat. Intelligent System Health Management technologies (ISHM) promise to enable the future space habitats to increase the safety and mission success while minimizing operational risks. In this paper, Water Recycling System (WRS) deployed at NASA Ames Research Center's Sustainability Base is used for verification and validation of the proposed solution. Our work includes the development of the WRS simulation model based on its dynamic physical characteristics and the design of Automatic Contingency Management (ACM) framework that integrates fault diagnosis and optimization. In WRS modeling, a nominal model with fault injectors is developed. Fault detection and isolation techniques are then developed for isolating causes and identifying the severity of the faults. Dynamic Programming (DP) based fault mitigation strategies are designed to accommodate the faults in the system. A series of simulations are presented with different fault modes and the results indicate that the proposed ACM system can alleviate the fault in the WRS optimally regarding energy consumption and effects of the fault.

Operation-Aware Health Management for Environmental Control and Life Support System

To enable effective management, planning, and operations for future missions that involve a crewed space habitat, operational support must be migrated from Earth to the habitat. Intelligent System Health Management technologies (ISHM) promise to enable the future space habitats to increase the safety and mission success while minimizing operational risks. Aligning with this objective, my Ph.D. study aims to develop fault diagnosis, prognosis, and automatic contingency management strategies for Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS). Innovations of the research include a combination of physics-based and data-driven modeling, low-cost diagnosis and prognosis, probabilistic reasoning, and optimization for decision-making. Data from Photovoltaic (PV) arrays and Water Recycling System (WRS) deployed at NASA Ames Research Center's Sustainability Base will be used for comparison studies with existing methods and technology validation and verification of the proposed system.

Solar Particle Event Dose Forecasting Using Regression Techniques

AbstractDoses from solar particle events can be a serious threat to the wellbeing of crews traveling through space. Therefore, methods for predicting the time such events will take place, methods for forecasting the dose buildup over time, and methods for forecasting the potential total dose from such events are needed to enable crews to take actions to mitigate the effects by entering a shielded area designed for their protection. This work focuses on forecasting the total dose expected for an event, based upon doses obtained very early in the event, using the kernel regression method. The model uses tables of calculated doses for historical solar particle events augmented with hypothetical events similar to the actual ones for training purposes. Reasonably accurate predictions of the total dose expected for an event can be made within the first hour after event onset. Predictive accuracies generally increase as the event progresses in time. The only inputs required are doses and times since event onset as provided by dosimetry devices. One hundred thirteen actual events with total doses between 1 and 1,000 cGy were tested using the model. At 1 hr into the event, total dose predictions were within ±30% of the actual total doses for 91 events (81%) and within ±15% for 54 of them (48%). Within the first 4 hr following event onset, total dose predictions were within ±30% for 98 events (87%) and within ±15% for 66 of them (58%). A software package implementing the model has been provided to the Space Radiation Analysis Group at NASA Johnson Space for incorporation into their operational procedures for analyzing possible threats to space crews from solar particle events.

Biotransformation of used means of personal hygiene of cosmonauts and vegetable waste as applied to life support systems for space crews

Biotransformation of used means of personal hygiene of cosmonauts and vegetable waste as applied to life support systems for space crews

Biotransformation of used means of personal hygiene of cosmonauts and vegetable waste as applied to life support systems for space crews

Biotransformation of used means of personal hygiene of cosmonauts and vegetable waste as applied to life support systems for space crews

“Howdy Partner!” Space Brotherhood, Detente and the Symbolism of the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project

In 1975 American and Soviet spacecraft docked together in orbit as part of the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), the world's first international crewed space mission. Focussing on the project's political symbolism, this article argues that the ASTP was an attempt by the Nixon and Ford administrations to advertise US–Soviet detente by harnessing the optimistic imagery of “space brotherhood,” an instinctive kinship supposedly shared by American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts. This was ultimately unsuccessful, as detente's critics appropriated the mission for their own symbolic use to attack US–Soviet detente as a fantastical escape from earthly problems.

Overload control of artificial gravity facility using spinning tether system for high eccentricity transfer orbits

As the major part of space life supporting systems, artificial gravity requires further study before it becomes mature. Spinning tether system is a good alternative solution to provide artificial gravity for the whole spacecraft other than additional devices, and its longer tether length could significantly reduce spinning velocity and thus enhance comfortability. An approximated overload-based feedback method is proposed to provide estimated spinning velocity signals for controller, so that gravity level could be accurately controlled without complicated GPS modules. System behavior in high eccentricity transfer orbits is also studied to give a complete knowledge of the spinning stabilities. The application range of the proposed method is studied in various orbit cases and spinning velocities, indicating that it is accurate and reliable for most of the mission phases especially for the final constant gravity level phase. In order to provide stable gravity level for transfer orbit missions, a sliding mode controller based on estimated angular signals is designed for closed-loop control. Numerical results indicate that the combination of overload-based feedback and sliding mode controller could satisfy most of the long-term artificial gravity missions. It is capable of forming flexible gravity environment in relatively good accuracy even in the lowest possible orbital radiuses and high eccentricity orbits of crewed space missions. The proposed scheme provides an effective tether solution for the artificial gravity construction in interstellar travel.

Motivational profiles of retired cosmonauts

Motivational patterns have been shown to be related to outcomes such as occupational success and satisfaction, innovation, aggressiveness, cooperation, and conformity. They are likely to be important in adaptation to the demands of flying in a space crew. Autobiographical interviews with 20 retired long-duration male cosmonauts were scored for references to three core motives: the needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation. Overall, the cosmonauts mentioned need for Affiliation most often, followed by need for Achievement, with need for Power the least frequently mentioned. However, need for Power increased between reminiscences of one's pre-flight career to those concerning the in-flight and post-flight periods. Imagery related to both other needs decreased. Cosmonauts who had spent less than a year in space mentioned need for Achievement significantly more frequently than those who had spent more than a year. Other space-experience and demographic variables, and changes across pairs of career phases, were not significant. The high scores for need for Affiliation indicate the importance of selecting compatible teams and fostering friendship and cooperation during training and deployment. A relatively flat hierarchical organization would be harmonious with low Power motivation; but the increase during missions indicates a desire for autonomy. After retirement from spaceflight, former space crews should be afforded opportunities for leadership and decision-making to satisfy continuing need for Power. Comparison is made to the same measures applied to a sample of ISS crewmembers, and to the ISS vs. veteran data for 8 cosmonauts who were included in both sets of data.

Age Peculiarities in the Disease Structure of Cosmonauts after Finishing Their Flight Activity

Age Peculiarities in the Disease Structure of Cosmonauts after Finishing Their Flight Activity