Soviet School Research Articles

The Influence of Soviet State Policy on School Everyday Life in Kazakhstan (1945–1955)

Introduction. The work reconstructs the ideological component of Soviet children’s everyday school life in Kazakhstan, which had a huge impact on their socialization. Methods and materials. The methodological basis of the study is the theory of the sociologist P. Sztompka about the significance of “cultural trauma” in the biography of any generation of people – social tension associated with changes in society, the transformation of its values. The method of narrative interview was used in the work. Interviews were conducted with over 20 respondents whose childhood was spent in Kazakhstan in 1945–1965. Analysis. Archival data and recollections of respondents show that the school, which traditionally carried out a certain order of society, was the main mechanism in the formation of the “new Soviet person.” During the period under study, the “order” was to form a Soviet identity, with which the Soviet school and socio-political organizations represented by the pioneers and the Komsomol in Kazakhstan successfully coped. Everyday school practice reflected the ideological component of school education – all respondents, assessing their childhood from today’s standpoint, are aware of the degree of this influence. Results. A number of mechanisms were analyzed through which the official Soviet authorities formed the consciousness of the future “builders of communism”: the school, ideologized and, in fact, obligatory children’s organizations, and propaganda. The identified correspondence between the propaganda ideal and the real image of a Soviet schoolchild indicates the acceptance and assimilation of socialist values by children in Kazakhstan. The data obtained open up prospects for new research on the history of Soviet children’s everyday lives. Authors contribution. A.A. Bimoldanova proposed the idea and concept of the article and wrote the final text. M.J. Bekmagambetova prepared a historiographic review, was engaged in the identification and analysis of documentary sources from the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and R.K. Bekmagambetov carried out the transcription and interpretation of the interview materials and the technical design of the text of the article. All three authors interviewed respondents.

The fourth generation of academic Kazakh grammar

The article discusses the issue of compiling large grammatical works, including academic grammars. In particular, answers are sought for such questions as the following: What is the scientific character (style) of compiling fundamental grammatical works? What should their scientific apparatus, their design and structure look like? What research methods should be used? What is their target audience? In order to achieve this purpose, we carried out a comparison of academic grammars originating in the Soviet Union and those fundamental, voluminous grammatical works compiled according to the European-American model. The experience of compiling grammatical editions in Turkic languages has also been taken into account. The ideas obtained as a result were used in compiling the next academic grammar of the Kazakh language. This article was written with the objective of sharing the experience and elaborating on the results of the comparison. It has been found out that fundamental grammatical works have their own scientific character (this concerns the Soviet school): academic grammars are written on the normative and descriptive basis, i.e. scientific descriptions must be accompanied by a normative differentiation. The structure is directly linked to the levels of language which the editorial board have chosen as the object of study (lexis, phonetics, word building, morphology and syntax). There are consistency and moderation in designing grammatical works as well. Research material and examples are taken from literary samples. These principles are based on the fact that academic grammars are oriented to scientific and educational community. At the same time, as European and American fundamental grammars are compiled for the general scientific community, the aforementioned academic principles may not be followed. Since fundamental grammatical works are not compiled very often (once in 20–30 years), such studies are not frequent either. The grammars created in the Soviet period have not been revised fully yet. It is specifically important to revise academic grammars, as they need to document and standardize the new knowledge in the field of language. The issue of revising the academic grammar of the Kazakh language has been brought into the spotlight, and in 2022, the new generation of the grammar was prepared. For this reason, the conclusions of the article and the experience obtained while developing the new generation of the “Kazakh Grammar” may become useful while compiling new fundamental grammatical works.

Protection of children’s health in the environment of Russian emigration and the USSR in the conditions of the spread of infectious diseases in the 1920s–1930s

Introduction. The preservation of children’s health is an important state task, the success of which is largely determined by the socio-cultural context, traditions in the application of preventive measures and the provision of medical care. In this regard, it is indicative of the comparison of measures to preserve the health of schoolchildren in the “Russian schools” of the emigrant environment (on the example of schools in the Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and Soviet schools in the 1920s and 1930s in the conditions of the spread of infectious diseases. Materials and methods. The data sources were published reports of Russian educational institutions in exile, which contain information about the health of schoolchildren, data on the health of Soviet schoolchildren were obtained from collections of analytical works of the specified period. Results. The prevalence of infectious diseases in children among Russian emigration and in the USSR was comparable, with the exception of measles, cases of which were not recorded in emigrant educational institutions in the Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. As the main preventive measures, disinfection and examinations were carried out, vaccinations were made. The living conditions of emigrants contributed to the spread of tuberculosis, the incidence of which among children of emigrants was higher than among the European population. Soviet and emigrant doctors agreed that the fight against infectious diseases should develop at the level of organized collectives (schools, kindergartens). Conclusion. Thus, emigrant doctors largely followed the medical traditions and experience that had developed in pre-revolutionary Russia. Nevertheless, the living conditions of emigrants and the lack of funds became factors that reduced the effectiveness of preventive measures and medical care. An important difference was that the events in the Soviet Union were carried out within the framework of the state policy on health protection, and in the emigrant environment were of a local nature, determined as a rule by the capabilities of specific educational institutions.

От имперского к советскому школьному образованию: проблемы становления трудовой школы на Кубани в 1920 году

The cultural growth of the Soviet multinational people resulted from the purposeful work of the RCP(b) – VKP(b) to eliminate the illiteracy of the population and organize universal education for school-age children. The policy of the Bolsheviks in the 1920s provided Soviet citizens with ac-cess to free education and the right of national minorities to study in their native language. The country faced internal and external challenges that required the diversion of serious state re-sources, but the field of education remained a priority for the Communist Party and was provided with state support. Understanding the Soviet experience of organizing school education in the conditions of the economic crisis of the early 1920s and the socialist modernization of the 1930s remains an urgent topic on the example of the not always successful results of educational reforms in the post-Soviet period. The concept of social justice, which was at the heart of the Soviet school, allowed Russian science to become the leading one in the world. USSR formed school ed-ucation based on the traditional Russian educational concept and those innovations that were im-plemented by the Bolsheviks in the 1920 s and 1930 s. At the same time, it should be noted that the organization and functioning of the Soviet school pursued clearly expressed ideological goals.

Подготовка будущих педагогов для советской трудовой школы: педуклоны в 1920-1930-е г.г. в Оренбуржье

This article highlights and discusses the periods of development of peduklons in the 1920-1930s in the Orenburg region. The features of training future teachers for the Soviet school are revealed. And also the pain points characteristic of schools in 1297 are given, which were identified as a result of a survey of students, namely: a) the monotony of work methods in first-level schools, which discouraged interest in passive practical training; b) little time to study notes, since it was not always possible to get material from the teacher in a week; c) poor participation of trainees in the social work of the first-level school; d) insufficient number of trial lessons; e) the impossibility for everyone to familiarize themselves with the work of 3 and 4 gr. And recommendations are given: “a) contact the school more closely; b) improve relationships between teachers of first-level schools and trainees; c) strengthen work in public organizations of schools; d) increase the number of trial lessons; e) more opportunities on the part of schools for trainees to demonstrate their activity; f) more fully organize the recording of school attendance by trainees; g) allocate one day from the weekly schedule specifically for the workshop, since students have to study without rest after the workshop at their school.” Based on theoretical analysis, a specific curriculum for a labor school of the second stage is presented (using the example of school No. 8 named after Profintern in Orenburg (1928-29 academic year), the practice of organizing education in Orenburg schools that worked according to “pedagogical lines” is considered.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE SHIROKOVA READINGS(LOMONOSOV MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY, NOVEMBER 27-28, 2023)

The review of reports presented at the international conference 1st Shirokova Readings, held on November 27-28, 2023 on the basis of the Faculty of Philology of Lomonosov Moscow State University, dedicated to the memory of the founder of the Soviet school of Bohemistics, Honorary Doctor of Charles University in Prague and Honored Professor of Moscow State University A.G. Shirokova, is presented. The conference was attended by more than 50 researchers from Moscow, St. Petersburg, Samara, Saratov, Perm, Penza, Chelyabinsk, Sevastopol, Donetsk, Minsk, Baku, Brno, Budapest, Belgrade, Skopje.

РОЛЬ ЦЕРКОВНО-ПРИХОДСКИХ ШКОЛ В ПРОСВЕЩЕНИИ ЗАБАЙКАЛЬСКИХ СТАРООБРЯДЦЕВ (НА ПРИМЕРЕ СЕЛ ХАСУРТА И УНЭГЭТЭЙ ЗАБАЙКАЛЬСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ В НАЧАЛЕ ХХ ВЕКА)

The paper examines the history of the creation of rural parochial schools in the Old Believer villages of Transbaikalia at the beginning of the twentieth century using the example of the villages of Khasurta and Unegetei. These villages are notable for the fact that they were formed at the beginning of the 19th century by baptized Buryats of the Khorinsky department, who converted to the Old Believers. They formed a separate clan administration - Kurbinskoe. Analysis of the materials showed that the literacy schools founded in 1903 in two villages of the society, Khasurta and Unegetei, had their own buildings in 1910 and were the only cultural and educational center of the Kurba Valley. With the assistance of missionary Orthodox priests, children of baptized non-Russians and Old Believers peasants were involved in the educational process, increasing the level of literacy among the population. The education system of parochial schools included subjects of a religious nature, but the educational component was not strictly ecclesiastical. Children at school also received natural and humanitarian knowledge. The parochial schools created at the beginning of the twentieth century “survived” the historical stage of the transition of the old pre-revolutionary education system to the new Soviet school. The education system on which the teaching of new schools in the first years of Soviet power was based, for the most part, relied on the traditional teaching methods of the old church school. The paper pays due attention to the work of a rural teacher who, despite everyday difficulties and meager funding, taught rural children to read and write. After the revolutionary events of 1917, the teacher was in the thick of all the affairs of rural activists, helping to transform the lives of rural residents.

THE METHOD OF MARKING ITS CHAINS OF OCCURRENCES WITH A MORPHISM NUMDER IN THE N-SCHEME OF THE MARKOV ALGORITHM

To detect and classify λ-voids, we study a way of marking own chains of occurrences of words in each other by the morphism number determined in the N-scheme of the Markov algorithm. In the framework of the category-theoretic approach, the N-scheme of the Markov algorithm is considered as a topos form of the Markov algorithm. The topos explores additional properties of classifiers. The idea of introducing the Markov control flow algorithm into the N-schema is subjected to a comprehensive theoretical analysis. The control flows in the Turing algorithm and the topos form of the Markov algorithm are subjected to a comparative analysis. From the standpoint of the theoretical provisions of the constructivist approach of the Soviet (Leningrad) school, the conditions for equivalence and non-equivalence of the Markov and Turing algorithms are considered. The form of the Markov algorithm equivalent and non-equivalent to the Turing algorithm is synthesized, substantiated and analyzed. To detect the final occurrences in its chain of occurrences, necessary for the detection and classification of λ-voids, the composition of the elements of the N-scheme of the Markov algorithm, which is responsible for this, is specified. For some unknown algorithm for numbering its chains of occurrences of words in each other using the database of the N-scheme of the Markov algorithm, the method of its implementation by the imitating Turing algorithm is considered. The idea of Turing's algorithm imitating some of the algorithms used for the synthesis of artificial intelligence is analyzed. In the context of this study, it is shown that the imitation of the Turing algorithm is due to the need for a second pass through the data, organized by accessing the database in the N-scheme of the Markov algorithm. A description is given for the method of marking own chains of occurrences with the morphism number in the N-scheme of the Markov algorithm. It is concluded that it is necessary to decompose the instruction for checking whether the chain of occurrences belongs to its own chain into fragments, the length of which will be relatively small, for which we consider the method of marking the chains of occurrences with a word, as well as convolution.

Tradition and Development of Lithuanian Terminology

The development of Lithuanian terminology has undergone several stages. The first stage is characterised by elemental terminology development, marked by unsystematic progress before the Industrial Revolution. Due to Lithuania’s socio-cultural circumstances—such as the prevalence of science in international languages, the absence of a standardised public Lithuanian language, occupation, and its peripheral status within the empire—terminology primarily relied on the spoken folk language, lacking a structured scientific foundation. The second stage aligns with Lithuania’s industrial revolution in the middle of the 19th century. With advancements in industry, science, education, the press, and the popular scientific literature, there emerged a demand for new, systematic Lithuanian terminology. The resources from previous centuries proved insufficient in both quality and quantity. Consequently, alongside original Lithuanian terminology, a considerable number of translated terms, calques, and foreign language influences emerged, leading to synonymy issues. Often a patriot or a man of science, who has returned or is returning to the Lithuanian language, has, to put it mildly, insufficient knowledge of Lithuanian word formation and grammar, and hence the rather poor quality of terminology emerges. The third stage of development marks the beginning of systematic and conscious work on terminology, the recognition of terminology as an important auxiliary scientific discipline, and the postulation of its principles in the first half of the 20th century. It is during this period that textbooks and systematic dictionaries were produced in various fields of science (mathematics, geometry, zoology, engineering, philosophy, law, etc.). Even administrative resources are used, with the creation of terminology commissions in various subject areas. It is at this moment that the terminology genius of Stasys Šalkauskis stands out because by creating and reflecting on the terminology of philosophy, he lays the foundations of the science of Lithuanian terminology. His ideas are in line with those of Eugen Wüster, who is considered to be the founder of terminology. The fourth stage of terminology development coincides with the Soviet occupation. Despite the complex situation and language dynamics, the publication of term dictionaries in diverse scientific fields flourished. Notably, all education, from primary school to dissertation defence, was available in the Lithuanian language. Although the influence of Russian was strong and the Soviet school dominated terminology science, this period witnessed substantial development. The fifth stage refers to the recent post-independence times. Terminology work has become much more lively and varied, acquiring a truly international character, and Western ideas of terminology have been widely adopted. A national language policy has emerged. Unfortunately, against the background of the general equality of the languages of the European Union, the language of science is increasingly becoming English, and the number of scientific publications in Lithuanian is decreasing. Therefore, it is sometimes worrying to think what lies ahead for the science of terminology in Lithuania and for the Lithuanian terminology. The science of terminology is young. Both in Europe and in Lithuania. It may have its roots in the early 19th century, but the time of its formation is the middle of the 20th century. However, during this short period of time, due to the efforts of terminologists—both linguists and specialists in the subject areas - the Lithuanian terminology has successfully played its proper role in the Lithuanian language of science and technology. The hope is that the morbidly perceived internationality will not overshadow the Lithuanian language altogether and that the new winds of life will not hinder the development of Lithuanian terminology, which will continue to serve the intellectual life of the Lithuanian nation, despite “occasional setbacks”.

ANALYSIS OF SOURCES ON THE HISTORY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION IN THE TERRITORY OF CHUVASHIA (late XVIII – first third of the XX century)

School education system in Russia passed a difficult and thorny path in its evolvement and development. Compared with its Western European counterpart, domestic secondary school has a shorter history. In our country, the first primary and secondary educational institutions providing general education appeared only at the end of the XVIII century. Throughout the XIX century, they were repeatedly reformed; as a result, noticeable quantitative and qualitative changes took place. However, despite this, we can talk about certain continuity in the evolution of the Russian school until the beginning of the XX century. The fundamental breakdown of established general education system occurred as a result of the establishment of Soviet power. During the 1920s and 1930s, all levels and links of the education sector were reorganized. The purpose of the study is to analyze historical sources on the problem of formation and development of the general school education system in the territory of modern Chuvashia. Materials and methods. The study was carried out on the basis of regulatory and archival documents. In our work, we relied on the principles of historicism, consistency and objectivity, considering events in their historical interrelation, analyzing diverse historical sources on the topic of research. Historical-comparative and historical-typological methods of research were used. Based on them, it was possible to identify the main groups of sources and give them a scientific analysis. The scientific novelty is determined by the fact that in regional historiography, it is for the first time that the main groups of historical sources on the topic of evolvement and development of the general school education system in the region are analyzed starting from the end of the XVIII century and up to the 1920s, i.e. until the time of creating the Soviet school education system. Most archival sources are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time. Study results. The article characterizes two main groups of historical sources on the topic «The History of School Education in Russia». These are regulatory documents and archival materials. They are the most multinomial and important for studying the topic. The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that its main provisions can help to better understand the current state and prospects for the development of domestic educational system. The results obtained can also be used to develop generalizing works on the history and culture of the region. This study is not exhaustive. In the future, it is necessary to pay attention to such interesting groups of historical documents as memoirs, letters and memoirs of participants in the educational process, i.e. teachers, students and educational organizers of the late XVIII – first third of the XX century. Conclusions. Historical sources on the topic «The History of School Education in the Territory of Modern Chuvashia at the end of the XVIII – first third of the XX century» are numerous and diverse. They are representative, giving the opportunity to study different aspects of the topic and help to recreate the general course of the regional school development the within the period under review and identify its specifics.

«Дипломат поневоле»: страницы биографии Николая Васильевича Новикова

Introduction. The article analyzes the biography and diplomatic activities of Nikolai Vasilievich Novikov (1903–1989), a Soviet diplomat who represented the USSR in Cairo and in Washington during World War II and took part in the efforts to establish a new system of international relations at the beginning of the Cold War. Methods and materials. The article is based on published texts by Nikolai Novikov himself, diplomatic documents, periodicals, and materials from his personal archive, deposited in the Archive of the European University at St. Petersburg by the diplomat’s family. Analysis. The authors examine Novikov’s biography, the reasons for his rapid career in the People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, his relations with Soviet foreign policy managers, and the circumstances of his resignation at a relatively young age. Special attention is paid to Novikov’s activities in the United States in the context of the emerging Cold War, the place of Novikov’s note (cable) in the process of shaping Soviet approaches to relations with the United States, and his own attitude to these approaches. Results. Novikov’s contribution to the shaping of the postwar world is underappreciated, as are his attempts to resist the changes that were breaking Soviet-American cooperation in the international arena. In fact, the strategic concepts formulated by Novikov in a memo to Molotov were the basis of the official Soviet interpretation of the causes and nature of the Cold War and were included in Soviet school and university textbooks on universal history and the history of international relations. Authors’ contributions. A.I. Kubyshkin analyzed the most important stages of Nikolai Novikov’s diplomatic activity and the general situation in relations between the USSR and the USA during the Second World War. He assessed Novikov’s activities from the political leadership of the USSR and foreign countries in which the Soviet diplomat worked. He also examined the most important aspects of the activities of Soviet diplomacy reflected in Novikov’s memoirs and carried out their internal criticism as a historical source. I.I. Kurilla processed the archive of Nikolai Novikov and identified and analyzed the corpus of sources of personal origin. He also analyzed the contents of Nikolai Novikov’s personal diaries, reviewed the personal contribution of N.V. Novikov in developing a strategy in relations with the United States in the initial period of the Cold War, and compared the contents of the “long telegram” of J. Kennan and the “Novikov telegram”.

“We will fight for peace all over the world until the last grenade”. Initial Military Training in Schools of the Lithuanian SSR in the Late Soviet Era

In the late Soviet period (1960s-1980s), the public policy of the Soviet Union was mainly based on two ideologemes - internationalism and military patriotism. They were also applied in the education system in the formation of the citizen, the so-called New Soviet Man. It was declared that one of the duties of this New Soviet Man was to ensure world peace, which required not only an internationalist mindset but also good military preparation. In 1968 the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a resolution on the introduction of compulsory initial military training in all schools in the USSR. Based on published historical sources (official resolutions, methodological guidelines, articles in the pedagogical press) and 34 qualitative interviews with former Soviet school pupils, the present article not only analyses the aims and principles, content, and methods of patriotic military upbringing and initial military training (IMT), but also presents the authentic experiences of how IMT was implemented in schools of the Lithuanian SSR. As our research shows, IMT in Soviet Lithuania did not run very efficiently. The biggest problem was the lack of qualified military instructors capable of working with children.

МОДЕРНІЗАЦІЯ НАВЧАЛЬНОГО ПРОЦЕСУ В УМОВАХ РЕФОРМУВАННЯ ШКІЛЬНОЇ ОСВІТИ В 1985–1991 РОКАХ

In the conditions of the «perestroika» of 1985–1991, the school in the Ukrainian SSR faced a number of challenges related to the reform of general education institutions. The difficulty was the contradictory nature of the Soviet period, when on paper there is only one thing, and in practice – something else, which ultimately led to the incompleteness of a huge number of reforms. The process of restructuring the educational field was, in fact, ambiguous. Secondary schools faced a number of new tasks: reconstruction of education in the conditions of NTR, in particular, the involvement of schoolchildren in computer knowledge and computer science concepts; strengthening the relationship between the school and practical production; new approaches in education and upbringing in the direction of glasnost and democratization. De facto, this led to experimentation in the search for new forms and methods of teaching and education in the Soviet school. The reconstruction of the school began with the computerization of the educational space, which was characterized by the lack of a professional methodical base, low qualification level of teachers and problems with technical support. According to the new curriculum of 1985/86 pupils was obliged to master a computer. Therefore, a new subject «Fundamentals of informatics and computer technology» was introduced. On the other hand, the lack of scientific and methodological support stimulated the search for new forms and methods of learning, which contributed to the development of pupil`s creative activity in the direction of scientific research. According to the reform, it was necessary to create a perfect program and textbooks on Ukrainian literature, and then, based on them, a complete educational and methodological complex, both for pupils and for teachers. The school subject – the literature of the previous period – had to serve as the foundation. The reform in secon­dary schools also affected the lesson of physical culture. An improved program «Comprehensive program of physical education of pupils of grades I–XI», was introduced. which included all forms of school physical culture, which constituted a complex system based on the All-Union Physical Comp­lex «Ready for Work and Defense of the USSR». As for the teachers of exact disciplines, they had to have a good command not only of scientific and theoretical material, but also to have ideological and political training.

Оркестровая фактура в симфонических сочинениях Ван Силиня

Wang Xilin (born 1936) is a Chinese composer currently living in Germany. In his home country, he is known as a musician of the Western trend. His works are occasionally performed in China and are widely known abroad. He has written about one hundred works in various genres, among which orchestral music plays a key role. In his symphonies and symphonic suites, Wang Xilin reinterprets in a new manner the diverse traditions of the Russian and Western European classics. On the other hand, these works vividly express the national Chinese color, manifested in the figurative and emotional sphere, melodicism and textural techniques. The composer has turned towards the orchestral genres during the course of his entire life. They have become a peculiar brand of chronicles of his style and reflect the periodization of his musical output, in which it is possible to highlight three styles. Each of them has its own priorities in his choice of textural means. Thus, his early period (1961–1977) is marked by the study of the Russian and Soviet schools of composition at the Shanghai Conservatory and of Chinese folklore during his exile in the province of Shanxi. The list of textural techniques in the orchestral works of this period — the suite Poems of Yunnan and Symphony No 1 — is not marked by any originality: the composer uses doublings, imitations and canonic expositions most frequently. Wang Xilin bears a striking resemblance to Dmitri Shostakovich in his construction of monodic lines. In his second period (1977–1990) Wang Xilin expanded his arsenal of textural means, in particular creating original “figuration canons” based on pentatonic chants based on intervals of seconds and fourths. These were first used in the suite The Impressions of Mount Taihang and were subsequently widely used by him in his symphonies and suites of his later period. Despite the ban on Western music during the Cultural Revolution, Wang Xilin studied the scores of Charles Ives and Krzysztof Penderecki. This influenced the third period of his work (starting from 1990), marked by a general chromatization of the harmonies and thematicism and the creation of different types of sonorous textures in his music. Overall, the textural basis of Wan Xilin’s works examined here is polyphonic many-voiced texture, but it also includes some homophonic-harmonic sections. Among them there are pastoral fragments with static textures and dance sections with tutti-pizzicato in the strings.

Судьбы математика М.Я. Выгодского и музыканта Н.Я. Выгодского как символ эпохи перемен от революционных идеалов к сталинскому террору

The article is devoted to the life and work of brothers Mark and Nikolai Vygodsky in the context of political and cultural events of the XX century. M.Ya. Vygodsky (1898–1965) – an outstanding Soviet mathematician and founder of the Soviet school of the history of mathematics, N.Ya. Vygodsky (1900–1939) – an incredible musician and musicologist. The author aims to present the fate of two extraordinary and talented people in a historical and cultural context, to analyze the connection between life and the epoch. The emphasis is on the brothers' active scientific, creative and social activities before 1935 and subsequent repressions, which illustrate the transition from revolutionary enthusiasm to new conditions. The author, the great-grandson of M.Ya. Vygodsky, uses archive materials, open sources and family memories to fix the contours of the image of scientists who, in various capacities, fell under the repression of the 30s. The author applies a new approach to the analysis of personal destiny within the framework of cultural ego history, developed together with E.V. Salnikova.

THE PROCESS OF INTRODUCING POLYTECHNICAL EDUCATION TO THE SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE EARLY 1930s (BASED ON ARCHIVAL SOURCES OF ULYANOVSK REGION)

Rapidly changing global conditions dictate the need to reform the education system. For this process to be effective, it is supposed to study the historical experience, in particular the positive experience of reforming the Soviet education system, which indicates the practical significance of the research work.
 
 The purpose of the research is to study the process of introducing polytechnical education to the Soviet school in order to identify problems, difficulties and practical methods of their overcoming that could be applied at the present stage.
 
 Materials and methods. The materials of local archival sources and the press were used; the methods of introducing polytechnical education into the secondary education, as well as their actual implementation in schools were analyzed. Of scientific interest is the factual material (archival documents, publications in the local press), which provides a favorable basis for studying the way the party policy was implemented locally.
 
 Study results. The structure of the executive branch was a guarantee that party policy would be implemented, but bureaucratization hindered this process, which in general terms is the analogue of current situation. The multilateral system of control in the school system (administrative, party and public ones) contributed to the fact that the introduction of polytechnical education passed quite effectively not only in the city, but in rural areas as well. In addition, involvement of schoolchildren in real work activities, as well as introduction of practical classes, had a positive impact on the process of introducing polytechnical education and optimizing the entire education system.
 
 Conclusions. Introduction of theoretical classes in vocational guidance, as well as practical lessons, can contribute to improving the general level of education in modern schoolchildren, their awareness about the diversity of professions, and increase the prestige of “working” specialties. The author provides a parallel analysis of the situation in the early 1930s and the current state of the educational system, showing new opportunities of prompts for solving modern problems in the educational system.

Ushinsky and the Soviet School (From the Historical Experience of the Creation of the National Education System)

In 2023, the founder of the national school and pedagogy, K. D. Ushinsky, turned 200 years old. The interest in the work of outstanding teachers observed in the information and educational space of the country was due not only to the youth, but also to the announcement of 2023. The year of the teacher and mentor. In carrying out the tasks formulated in the Presidential Decree “On the approval of the foundations of state policy for the preservation and strengthening of traditional Russian spiritual and moral values”, a significant place is given to the domestic education system. The task of the sovereignty of education should be solved, according to the President of the Russian Federation V. V. Putin, based on the experience and achievements of national pedagogy and school. The article examines some aspects of the educational policy of the Soviet state during the formation of the national school model, which absorbed the best pre-revolutionary traditions and achievements of the Soviet period. The need to “transfer schools to education and upbringing in the spirit of national-state patriotism” required the return of K. D. Ushinsky’s creative heritage to pedagogical theory and practice. A special place in this process belonged to the People’s Commissar of Enlightenment of the RSFSR V. P. Potemkin, in many ways — the “spiritual heir” of Ushinsky. Russian history and literature, achievements of Russian culture and pedagogy have firmly entered into the practice of teaching and upbringing, becoming the strongest feature of one of the “best schools” in the world.

“Looking for pen pals”: internationalist upbringing in a school of the Lithuanian SSR in the late Soviet era

ABSTRACTThe article analyses one of the main elements of the Soviet political doctrine, as well as the principles of Soviet education – internationalism and its implementation at school. Internationalist upbringing and the accompanying “friendship of nations” become the main axis of this article, not only in terms of the concepts themselves and their ideologised meanings, but also, and most importantly, in terms of their expressions, which are presented based on the interviews of 32 former students about their experiences in the Lithuanian Soviet school in the late Soviet era (1960s–1980s). In this case, the most striking aspect of the introduction of the so-called “friendship of nations” in schools is the example of pupils’ correspondence with young people from different socialist countries and Soviet republics. Relying on the personal reflections of pupils at the time, and also on the Soviet press, textbooks, etc., we analyse what promoted and what constrained this form of communication. The study reveals that internationalist education served as a Trojan horse, masking russification and the ideology of the “creation of a new Soviet man”.

The Soviet School and the Measurement of the Dailyness of the Educational System (On the Example of Ijevan School Construction)

Key words. everyday life, educational system, communist ideology, political organization, repression, school statistics, socialist education The article is dedicated to the study of the peculiarities of the educational and cultural life of Soviet Ijevan in the 1920s-30s. Within the framework of the article an attempt has been made to identify the local features of the educational system, the social status of the teaching staff, perceptions, ideological manifestations and reality. The purpose of the article is to study the daily features of the formation of the educational system of Soviet Armenia, more specifically the educational life of Ijevan and the region, based on the Soviet Armenian press and official sources. In addition, we tried to study the features of the educational activities of Soviet Ijevan in the 1920s-30s: the daily events of the establishment of a Soviet school, the elimination of illiteracy, the process of training teaching staff, the patterns and deviations of the school environment of the Soviet ideology and communist code of conduct. Along with the sovietization of Armenia, the general educational system underwent transformations: new educational standards and new models of the art school were formed.

Chinese anthropology and ethnology: the fifth way of anthropology and ethnology in the world

Chinese anthropology and ethnology studies are shaped by diverse schools of thought, including Western anthropology, classical Marxist ethnic theory, the Soviet school of ethnology, and Chinese experience and theory. In particular, Western anthropology, classical Marxist ethnic theory, and the Soviet school have had a tremendous impact on Chinese anthropology and ethnology studies across different historical periods. In China, practical and theoretical studies on anthropology and ethnology have become increasingly embedded in those three academic traditions. In this sense, Chinese anthropology and ethnology studies are by no means a simple replica of disciplinary progress made in other countries, nor are they a mixed-up combination of overseas studies in the Chinese context. On the contrary, Chinese anthropology and ethnology studies have developed as an independent Chinese school of thought guided by Marxist principles and a research area through the efforts of generations of Chinese scholars with lessons learned from practical experiences and global research results to produce new theories and methodologies adapted to the Chinese social context. This research area aims to improve the well-being of Chinese people, featuring Chinese academic legacy and confidence. The Chinese anthropology and ethnology as an academic discipline represents the fifth way in global anthropology and ethnology studies, following its predecessors established in the United Kingdom, continental Europe, the Soviet Union, and the United States. This tradition marks a unique contribution from the developing world, one that enriches and advances global anthropology and ethnology studies. In other words, with a focus on national and contemporary imperatives, Chinese anthropology and ethnology studies have leveraged and examined other anthropological and ethnological doctrines to propose innovative concepts and theories. Furthermore, it provides valuable “Chinese experience” for developing countries to navigate anthropology and ethnology.