South-Eastern Bantu Research Articles

The disappearing San of southeastern Africa and their genetic affinities

Southern Africa was likely exclusively inhabited by San hunter-gatherers before ~2000 years ago. Around that time, East African groups assimilated with local San groups and gave rise to the Khoekhoe herders. Subsequently, Bantu-speaking farmers, arriving from the north (~1800 years ago), assimilated and displaced San and Khoekhoe groups, a process that intensified with the arrival of European colonists ~350 years ago. In contrast to the western parts of southern Africa, where several Khoe-San groups still live today, the eastern parts are largely populated by Bantu speakers and individuals of non-African descent. Only a few scattered groups with oral traditions of Khoe-San ancestry remain. Advances in genetic research open up new ways to understand the population history of southeastern Africa. We investigate the genomic variation of the remaining individuals from two South African groups with oral histories connecting them to eastern San groups, i.e., the San from Lake Chrissie and the Duma San of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg. Using ~2.2 million genetic markers, combined with comparative published data sets, we show that the Lake Chrissie San have genetic ancestry from both Khoe-San (likely the ||Xegwi San) and Bantu speakers. Specifically, we found that the Lake Chrissie San are closely related to the current southern San groups (i.e., the Karretjie people). Duma San individuals, on the other hand, were genetically similar to southeastern Bantu speakers from South Africa. This study illustrates how genetic tools can be used to assess hypotheses about the ancestry of people who seemingly lost their historic roots, only recalling a vague oral tradition of their origin.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00439-016-1729-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A genomic analysis identifies a novel component in the genetic structure of sub-Saharan African populations

Studies of large sets of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data have proven to be a powerful tool in the analysis of the genetic structure of human populations. In this work, we analyze genotyping data for 2841 SNPs in 12 sub-Saharan African populations, including a previously unsampled region of southeastern Africa (Mozambique). We show that robust results in a world-wide perspective can be obtained when analyzing only 1000 SNPs. Our main results both confirm the results of previous studies, and show new and interesting features in sub-Saharan African genetic complexity. There is a strong differentiation of Nilo-Saharans, much beyond what would be expected by geography. Hunter-gatherer populations (Khoisan and Pygmies) show a clear distinctiveness with very intrinsic Pygmy (and not only Khoisan) genetic features. Populations of the West Africa present an unexpected similarity among them, possibly the result of a population expansion. Finally, we find a strong differentiation of the southeastern Bantu population from Mozambique, which suggests an assimilation of a pre-Bantu substrate by Bantu speakers in the region.

Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations

BackgroundThe ability of the Y chromosome to retain a record of its evolution has seen it become an essential tool of molecular anthropology. In the last few years, however, it has also found use in forensic genetics, providing information on the geographic origin of individuals. This has been aided by the development of efficient screening methods and an increased knowledge of geographic distribution. In this study, we describe the development of single base extension assays used to resolve 61 Y chromosome haplogroups, mainly within haplogroups A, B and E, found in Africa.ResultsSeven multiplex assays, which incorporated 60 Y chromosome markers, were developed. These resolved Y chromosomes to 61 terminal branches of the major African haplogroups A, B and E, while also including a few Eurasian haplogroups found occasionally in African males. Following its validation, the assays were used to screen 683 individuals from Southern Africa, including south eastern Bantu speakers (BAN), Khoe-San (KS) and South African Whites (SAW). Of the 61 haplogroups that the assays collectively resolved, 26 were found in the 683 samples. While haplogroup sharing was common between the BAN and KS, the frequencies of these haplogroups varied appreciably. Both groups showed low levels of assimilation of Eurasian haplogroups and only two individuals in the SAW clearly had Y chromosomes of African ancestry.ConclusionsThe use of these single base extension assays in screening increased haplogroup resolution and sampling throughput, while saving time and DNA. Their use, together with the screening of short tandem repeat markers would considerably improve resolution, thus refining the geographic ancestry of individuals.

On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages

The Malagasy have been shown to be a genetically admixed population combining parental lineages with African and South East Asian ancestry. In the present paper, we fit the Malagasy admixture history in a highly resolved phylogeographic framework by typing a large set of mitochondrial DNA and Y DNA markers in unrelated individuals from inland (Merina) and coastal (Antandroy, Antanosy, and Antaisaka) ethnic groups. This allowed performance of a multilevel analysis in which the diversity among main ethnic divisions, lineage ancestries, and modes of inheritance could be concurrently evaluated. Admixture was confirmed to result from the encounter of African and Southeast Asian people with minor recent male contributions from Europe. However, new scenarios are depicted about Malagasy admixture history. The distribution of ancestral components was ethnic and sex biased, with the Asian ancestry appearing more conserved in the female than in the male gene pool and in inland than in coastal groups. A statistic based on haplotype sharing (D(HS)), showing low sampling error and time linearity over the last 200 generations, was introduced here for the first time and helped to integrate our results with linguistic and archeological data. The focus about the origin of Malagasy lineages was enlarged in space and pushed back in time. Homelands could not be pinpointed but appeared to comprise two vast areas containing different populations from sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia. The pattern of diffusion of uniparental lineages was compatible with at least two events: a primary admixture of proto-Malay people with Bantu speakers bearing a western-like pool of haplotypes, followed by a secondary flow of Southeastern Bantu speakers unpaired for gender (mainly male driven) and geography (mainly coastal).

Naming the so-called continuous past tenses of the south-eastern Bantu languages with particular reference to Zulu

Scholars have used terminology such as ‘tenses of the participial’, ‘compound tenses’ and ‘continuous past’ or ‘durative past tenses’ to refer to a wide range of compound tenses of Zulu and the southeastern Bantu languages in general. Doke (1981) even refers to those forms that denote ‘unfulfilled or unaccomplished intention’ as the ‘contingent mood’. These terms are all inapt, and have probably misled generations of Bantu grammarians to believe that these verbal forms constitute a combination of two tenses with an implication of continuity inherent in them. It is proposed in this article that the term ‘relative tense’ be used as an umbrella term to denote the 16 so-called compound tenses of Zulu and the other south-eastern Bantu languages collectively. A brief overview is given of the difference between the absolute and relative tenses whereafter the array of relative Zulu tenses are investigated. After considering the labels used to refer to the so-called continuous past tenses collectively and individually, and considering the established terminology used in general linguistic sources on tense, appropriate terminology is suggested for the relative tenses collectively and individually. The relative tenses are unique in that they express a relation between coding time, reference time and event time. This salient characteristic of these tenses serves as the basis for their naming.

Parameters of morphosyntactic variation in Bantu1

AbstractBantu languages are fairly uniform in terms of broad typological parameters. However, they have been noted to display a high degree of more fine‐grained morphosyntactic micro‐variation. In this paper we develop a systematic approach to the study of morphosyntactic variation in Bantu by developing nineteen parameters which serve as the basis for cross‐linguistic comparison and which we use for comparing ten southeastern Bantu languages. We address conceptual issues involved in studying morphosyntax along parametric lines and show how the data we have can be used for the quantitative study of language comparison. Although the work reported is a case study in need of expansion, we will show that it nevertheless produces relevant results.

Voice onset time in Shekgalagarhi stops

The aim of this paper is to determine the efficacy of Voice Onset Time (VOT) in distinguishing a series of word initial homorganic stop consonants in Shengologa, a dialect of Shekgalagarhi, a South-eastern Bantu language of the Western Sotho-Tswana group. Issues pertinent to VOT are also addressed: namely VOT as a function of place of articulation; and the effect of phonetic context on VOT; specifically the influence of the following vowel. Compared with other stops, ejectives have often manifested long VOT values in some languages with VOT values of around 80+ ms in duration being not uncommon. The argument is that in Shengologa, the voiceless unaspirated stops are pulmonic stops rather than glottalic. Voiceless aspirated stops in general manifest long duration of aspiration. LWATI: A Journal of Contemporary Research Vol.3 () 2006: pp.169-185

The possible development of the Nguni locative prefixes e-o- /ke-/ la(yi)- ‘at, on, to, etc.’ from a demonstrative base la- / na-

In this paper, comparative data from a number of Nguni and other South Eastern Bantu languages are utilised to argue that the Nguni locative prefixes e-, o-, ke-, la- or layi-, expressing the general locative significance of ‘at. on, to, etc.’, probably originated from a demonstrative base that manifests as either la- or na-, depending on the language concerned. This paper shows how Wilkes' (1993) proposal that this prefix probably developed from a demonstrative base la-, could be amended to account for a wider range of data than he initially envisaged. The amended hypothesis as proposed in this paper, succeeds in accounting for the possible diachronic origin of the various manifestations of this prefix in all of the Nguni languages.

Grammaticalisation in South-Eastern Bantu and the linguistic ‘dynamics’ underlying this process

In this article an investigation is undertaken of the process of grammaticalisation as it is manifested in numerous word categories in the South-Eastern Bantu languages. In addition, the dynamics (including, inter alia, the linguistic motivation and/or forces) underlying the developmental stages of this process are identified. Traditional analyses in these languages have in many instances merely identified and classified morphological elements at face value, without delving any deeper into their possible origins and historical development. It will be shown that a historical perspective in terms of grammaticalisation can throw new light on the agglutinating nature of these languages. Furthermore, it will be shown how such a process can also reveal insights on the whole question of word categorisation.

Non-structure-preserving rules in lexical phonology: Southeastern Bantu harmony

One of the principles which supposedly governs the application of phonological rules in the lexicon is that of Structure Preservation, according to which conditions on the marking of feature values in underlying representation remain in force during lexical derivation. Evidence examined in this article indicates that the principle not only is too restrictive as a constraint on synchronic grammars but also makes wrong predictions about the direction of phonological change. The data involve an assimilatory process which affects mid vowels in southeastern Bantu languages.

Assessment of speech intelligibility in five South-Eastern Bantu languages: Critical considerations

This paper examines criteria underlying the development of tasks and materials for the measurements of speech intelligibility in five South-Eastern Bantu languages. The chief considerations include utterance length, word familiarity and structure, and phonetic balance. It is established that the foundation research necessary for devising materials in South-Eastern Bantu languages on the same basis as those of English has not yet been conducted. Salient properties of the relevant African languages include multilingualism, dialectal variation, vocabulary differences between rural and urban speakers of the same language, borrowed words, the simple vowel systems, the fairly elaborate consonant systems, prosodic features, certail syllable structure characteristics, and noun morphology. A rationale for the use of two measures of intelligibility is presented, while the need to adapt many criteria characterising English materials is demonstrated.

Assessment of speech intelligibility in five south-eastern Bantu languages: critical considerations.

This paper examines criteria underlying the development of tasks and materials for the measurements of speech intelligibility in five South-Eastern Bantu languages. The chief considerations include utterance length, word familiarity and structure, and phonetic balance. It is established that the foundation research necessary for devising materials in South-Eastern Bantu languages on the same basis as those of English has not yet been conducted. Salient properties of the relevant African languages include multilingualism, dialectal variation, vocabulary differences between rural and urban speakers of the same language, borrowed words, the simple vowel systems, the fairly elaborate consonant systems, prosodic features, certail syllable structure characteristics, and noun morphology. A rationale for the use of two measures of intelligibility is presented, while the need to adapt many criteria characterising English materials is demonstrated.

Motion in Tswana and its characteristic lexicalization

Characteristic patterns for the lexicalization of motion in Tswana, a Southeastern Bantu language, are explored. Examination of constraints governing classes of verb roots referring to motion events reveals two of the typological patterns put forward by Talmy [1984] for the lexicalization of motion in natural language. The distinguishing feature of each pattern lies in the particular semantic elements incorporated in a main clause verb root. The fact of Motion and Manner/Cause are incorporated in the verb root when lexicalizing complex location-motion events. However, when lexicalizing complex motion events of a directional nature, as well as both locational- and directional- motion events of a less complex nature, the verb root incorporates the fact of Motion and the Path which a moving object takes.

Typological trends in South-Eastern Bantu

Language is not a static system. It is susceptible to various forces or processes which continuously operate on it over periods of time. These forces or processes are, inter alia, responsible for the various trends and changes reflected in the different linguistic domains. In some instances these trends/changes are not perceptible in a synchronic dissection of a specific language, but only perceived in an analysis involving a cross-section of numerous languages. It is my aim in this article to exemplify some trends which appear to characterize the Bantu languages of the South-Eastern Zone (Doke's Zone 60). The areas of investigation dealt with can be conveniently grouped under the following headings: 1. Class reduction; 2. Prefixal vs suffixal system; 3. Category shifting. Data on four language groups form the basis of this study, namely Nguni, Sotho, Tsonga, and Venda. Where dialects of a group are involved, it suffices to single out only one when discussing each of the above areas of investigation, exce...

Computer-based education and the teaching of English for specific purposes: Report on a project in progress

South Africa is a multilingual country. Apart from two official languages, there are seven major languages. The latter group form part of the so-called Southeastern Bantu languages. When students with a Bantu language background start their university careers, they face a very serious communication problem because the medium of instruction is English. This means that they have to study in an ESL situation. In many cases English may even be a third language because they often speak more than one vernacular language. Students who enroll for courses in a faculty of Science are in the situation where they need English for Science and Technology (EST). In the beginning of 1979 Control Data Corporation (U.S.A.) introduced their PLATO Education System in South Africa. Their main interest was to offer people whose native language was not one of the official languages, viz. English and Afrikaans (the latter originated from Dutch), opportunities for educational upgrading. This area of interest led to a number of problems that called for immediate attention. Among these was the need for ESL course materials. The English materials available on PLATO were not ESL materials. Furthermore, the students' lack of proficiency in English made it difficult for them to benefit from excellent courses in many other subject areas.

Plasma cholinesterase studies on south-eastern Bantu of Mozambique.

Blood samples from four Bantu tribes in South-East Mozambique have been phenotyped for the plasma cholinesterase variants of the E1 locus. A control roup of 153 Portuguese residents in Mozambique have also been phenotyped. The frequencies of both the E1a and E1f genes in the Portuguese population is very similar to those in other Caucasian populations. The absence of the E1a gene in the four Bantu tribes provides more evidence of the rarity of this gene in Negroid populations. There is an increased frequency of E1f gene in all tribes as compared with previous surveys. The Ronga and Bitonga tribes have similar E1f frequencies of 0.047 and 0.048, respectively. The Shangana has an E1f frequency of 0.060, and the corresponding figure for the Chopi tribe is 0.089. The latter is the highest recorded frequency for this gene. The results give some support to the doubts concerning the affiliation of the Chopi tribe.

Genetic studies on southeastern Bantu of Mozambique. II. Serum groups, hemoglobins and red cell isozyme phenotypes.

Gene frequencies of 9 genetic markers are presented in a group of 4 Bantu tribes. With the exception of AK and LDH, these genetic markers are polymorphic, being thus useful in the study of anthropological relationships among the major Negroid populations in Africa.

Structuralism as a Conceptual Framework

I had imagined that the central issue of this symposium would be the contrast between nomothetic, or generalizing, research and idiographic, or particularistic, research in Africa. To what extent are the conclusions of research carried out in Africa limited to a geographic or cultural area: to sub-Saharan Africa, to the Bantu, to the Southeastern Bantu? To what extent are the conclusions generalizable to a certain type of society, no matter where it is found? Such a contrast of approaches would have raised the issues of the culturally distinctive qualities of African cultures and of the unique historical influences upon them. This emphasis is clearly evident in the writing of many anthropologists who have worked in Africa, particularly those with humanistic interests. It stands in contrast to another strategy of research which seeks, not the unique qualities of African cultures, but the general principles, exemplified by African societies as well as by all other societies.

Swazi Royal Ritual

IntroductionIn his Frazer Lecture of 1952, Rituals of Rebellion in South-East Africa (1954), Professor Max Gluckman considers certain types of ritual behaviour as institutionalized expressions of rebellion against authority. He maintains that this expression is an important function of such ritual. The following quotations present the gist of his interpretation:I shall therefore consider the social components of ceremonies, analogous to those which concerned Frazer, among the South-Eastern Bantu.…Here there are…performed, as elsewhere in Africa, national and local ceremonies at the break of the rains, sowing, first fruits, and harvest.…But whatever the ostensible purpose of the ceremonies, a most striking feature of their organization is the way in which they openly express social tensions. Women have to assert license and dominance as against their formal subordination to men, princes have to behave to the kings as if they covet the throne, and subjects openly state their resentment of authority. Hence I call them rituals of rebellion. I shall argue that some ritual rebellions proceed within an established distribution of power, and not about the structure of the system itself. This allows for instituted protest, and in complex ways renews the unity of the system (1954, p. 3).We are here confronted with a cultural mechanism which challenges study by sociologists, psychologists, and biologists, the analysis in detail of the process by which this acting of conflict achieves a blessing—social unity. Clearly we are dealing with the general problem of catharsis set by Aristotle … the purging of emotion through ‘pity, fear and inspiration’. Here I attempt only to analyze the sociological setting of the process (1954, p. 20).

Zulu and Xhosa praise-poetry and song

The boundary between song and some forms of verse or declamation which are nowadays classified as oral literature is a blurred one and calls for co-operation between linguists and ethnomusicologists. Very little study has yet been made of musical characteristics found in the border-line art of praise-poetry or praise-singing which is practiced very widely throughout Africa. Among the Eastern and South-Eastern Bantu, what small evidence there is reveals considerable differences between the traditional style of delivery associated with Zulu izibongo praises, and that, for example, of the Heroic Recitations of the Banyankore, a Bantu people of East Africa. A.N. Tucker has recorded some of the latter and they were taken as the subject for a thesis by H.F.R. Morris. They are uttered with quite phenomenal rapidity and the overall intonation contour of each line is a gradually descending one, without the observance of fixed musical pitches.