Southeast Ohio Research Articles

Experiences in evaluating regional air quality models

Any area of the world concerned with the health and welfare of its people and the viability of its ecological system must eventually address the question of the control of air pollution. This is true in developed countries as well as countries that are undergoing a considerable degree of industrialization. The control or limitation of the emissions of a pollutant can be very costly. To avoid ineffective or unnecessary control, the nature of the problem must be fully understood and the relationship between source emissions and ambient concentrations must be established. Mathematical models, while admittedly containing large uncertainties, can be used to examine alternatives of emission restrictions for achieving safe ambient concentrations. The focus of this paper is to summarize our experiences with modeling regional air quality in the United States and Western Europe. The following modeling experiences have been used: future SO 2 and sulfate distributions and projected acidic deposition as related to coal development in the northern Great Plains in the U.S.; analysis of regional ozone and sulfate episodes in the northeastern U.S.; analysis of the regional ozone problem in western Europe in support of alternative emission control strategies; analysis of distributions of toxic chemicals in the Southeast Ohio River Valley in support of the design of a monitoring network human exposure. Collectively, these prior modeling analyses can be invaluable in examining a similar problem in other parts of the world as well, such as the Pacific rim in Asia.

The Company Town that Outlived the Company: Haydenville, Ohio

The company town is often an ephemeral phenomenon on the landscape. When the mine or factory closes, the town closes too, and its houses are removed or left to decay. A few company towns survive the removal of their economic base. Haydenville, in the Hocking Valley of southeast Ohio, has physically changed little since the boom days of the clay products industry. Its founder, Columbus industrialist Peter Hayden, wanted to build a self-contained community where employees and their families would live, work, play and worship together. The kiln-dried building tiles and conduit made at the company plants were used to build family houses, a church, post office, community center and store. The generally benevolent rule of the company gave the town social cohesion. When the plants closed in the 1960s, many families chose to stay in Haydenville, buying the company houses they had rented. Although the town has lost the sense of community that a single employer provided, most of the houses and public buildings still stand today—a striking testimonial to Haydenville's industrial past.

Evaluation of a multimedia monitoring system in Southeast Ohio

In order to estimate risk to human populations from environmental pollutants, it is necessary to have sound data on the concentrations of chemicals of concern in the affected media and knowledge of exposures of critical population subgroups to these chemicals. The Southeast Ohio Study is developing systematic and scientifically defensible methods for obtaining data on environmental concentrations in various media in the vicinity of critical receptors. This paper describes the study, discusses the technical approaches and gives some preliminary results.

A new look in exploration and development of old producing properties

Stepwise linear discriminant analysis and regression function techniques were used to classify and analyze the data from 224 oil, gas, and dry holes drilled to the base of the Silurian Geologic System in southeast Ohio, U.S.A., from 1968 to 1975. These are 8.7% of all wells drilled in the same geographical area over the time interval. The wells were divided into six groups depending on the amount of control the drilling company had over their ultimate completion. Thirteen environmental (geologic and engineering) factors plus location data were collected about each well. Successive groupings of oil and gas wells were used to determine an environmental index which was used to establish the hydrocarbon producing potential of the next group. Discriminant analysis was used to determine whether the wells within each group were classified properly and regression analysis was used to determine a production estimating function. Geophysical well data were used to estimate whether gas or oil was expected. With this dichotomy, production estimating functions which explain 74% of the variation for oil wells and 78% of the variation for gas wells were formulated. Using the discriminant function for these groups as a ranking function the following results were obtained: For oil wells, 18.5% Type II errors for the productive group and 24.4% Type II errors for the nonproductive group; for gas wells, 5.4% Type II errors for the productive group and 17.1% Type II errors for the nonproductive group. By accepting the above Type II errors one is significantly able to reduce the number of noneconomic wells completed that originally should have been considered dry holes. The inverse was tested with three wells and yielded 33% Type II errors. Any area in which adequate data are available is amenable to these types of analysis with their attendant diagnostic capabilities.

Population Parameters and Colony Composition of Beaver (Castor canadensis) in Southeast Ohio

The population dynamics of beaver was studied in SE Ohio from 1974 to 1978. All members of a local population were marked. Family units were a closed social system consisting of a monogamous adult pair, yearlings and kits. Two-year-old beaver dispersed from their natal site in the spring of their third summer of life. The average family unit size prior to dispersal was 5.85, between dispersal and birth of kits was 4.09, and after the birth of kits 6.04. Average annual litter size was 2.7. Litter size varied among years but not among family units. Outbreeding was the rule, only one parentprogeny pair bond formed after the over-winter loss of the adult male. This pair bond lasted only one breeding season, however. Members of each family unit remained together throughout the year and all members, including the adult male, participated in care of the kits.

The relevance of a human resources development model for understanding unemployment status within southeast Ohio

Abstract A systematic random sample of 1,493 adult residents was drawn from a multicounty area in southeast Ohio to test the relevance of a human resources development model for understanding unemployment status. Selected variables were correlated with length of unemployment and discriminant analysis was used to compare socio‐economic characteristics of unemployed and employed heads‐of‐house‐hold. The findings revealed that the variables selected for analysis were very poor predictors of employment status. A combined human resources‐structural perspective is suggested for consideration in regional development efforts implemented within lesser developed regions such as the one under study.

Patterns of scent-mounding in a population of beaver (Castor canadensis)

The frequency and pattern of distribution of scent-mound construction were studied in a population of beaver in southeast Ohio from 1975 through 1977. The study addressed the questions of whether or not the frequency of scent-mound construction varied with season, site, year, and degree of contact with other family groups, and whether the pattern of scent-mounding activity was parsimonious with the idea of “territorial marking.” The number of scent-mounds constructed was determined weekly for each site throughout the ice-free season. Scent-mounding activity was highest in spring and declined and remained low during summer and fall. Significant differences were found amoung sites and over years. Contact with other resident family groups altered both frequency and pattern of scent-mound construction. Scent-mounds did not conform to a “scent-fence” model. The most parsimonious interpretation of function of odor cues deposited on scent-mounds is the effect on the motivational state of residents and nonresidents, increasing the confidence and reducing anxiety in residents smelling their own scent-mound and decreasing the confidence and increasing the readiness to flee in trespassers encountering a strange scent-mound.

Human Capital and Labor Turnover in Manufacturing Industries: The Case of a Relatively Undeveloped Region in Southeast Ohio

Since 1970, increased attention has been devoted to examining the development potential of rural areas. Among the contributing factors are the reversal of population migration trends which began about 1970, the increasing dispersion of manufacturing activities, and the congestion and population losses of central urban cities. This study, as part of Title V research in Ohio, is an examination of labor force behavior in manufacturing. Although manufacturing employment has declined in relation to total employment in the region, the manufacturing sector has been and continues to be one of the major sources of income and employment. The characteristics and behavior of labor in this region are expected to be similar to those of many other rural areas in the United States, particularly areas of the Appalachian region.

The sequential organization of behavior in Tamias striatus

Twenty-five eastern chipmunks, Tamias striatus , were studied for 3 years in southeast Ohio. The effect of five factors on the sequential patterning of their behavior was examined using information theory and analysis of dyad transitions. Behavior is more stereotyped (1) in adults than young, (2) in males than females, (3) in the breeding season compared to the nonbreeding season, (4) away from than near home sites, and (5) when a conspecific is nearby rather than when no conspecific is in the vicinity. Stereotypy was also affected by interactions of factors 1 through 5. Differential frequency of specific dyad transitions occurred with the five factors. Stereotypy of behavior with respect to social organization is discussed.

Feeding Ecology of a Population of Eastern Chipmunks (Tamias striatus) in Southeast Ohio

Food resource fluctuation and composition of diet were continuously monitored for a population of eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) in SE Ohio from May through October 1975. Three food categories were used extensively by the population: plants, invertebrates, and fungi. Chipmunks selected subsets of the food available in each category. Plant material formed the bulk of spring and autumn diets. The relative proportion of invertebrate and fungal food in diets increased during summer. Adult males consumed significantly more plant and less invertebrate material than did other age-sex classes. Regression analysis revealed positive relationships between invertebrate and fungal availability and their percentages in the diet. Chipmunk activity was positively related to fungal consumption and inversely related to plant (reproductive structure) consumption. Explanations are offered for the trends observed. Discriminant analysis revealed a distinction between adult and juvenile feeding behavior based on invertebrate consumption, adults consuming smaller amounts of invertebrate food. In addition, adult feeding behavior was consistent while that of juveniles was interpreted as being adaptively flexible.

Effects of Climate on the Circannual Rhythm of the Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus

The eastern chipmunk ( Tamias striatus ), a temperate sciurid, has evolved precise timing of breeding in southeast Ohio similar to the strategy found in the Arctic ground squirrel ( Spermophilus undulatus ). Abnormally low ambient temperatures in late winter did not delay the timing of the spring breeding season, but the number of breeding females declined. However, atypically cold temperatures in early spring delayed the timing of post-torpor activity. The evolution and adaptive nature of precise breeding periods and a flexible schedule with regard to seasonal emergence are postulated and related to the ecology of chipmunks in southeast Ohio.

Breeding Seasons and Fecundity of Female Gray Squirrels in Ohio

Measures of productivity, breeding seasons, and fecundity of female gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) were studied in southeast Ohio between 1966 and 1970. The corpus luteum begins to decline in size before birth and disappears 5-7 weeks postpartum. Placental scars are visible at least seven months postpartum and, if uteri are chemically treated at scar sites, can be separated into winter-spring and summer-fall implantations. Breeding extended from late December until September, with peaks in breeding activity occurring 2 to 25 January and 19 May to 18 June. Ovum and embryo mortality totalled 9.0 percent for 33 pregnancies. Summer-born juveniles averaged 68.1 percent mortality between implantation and the hunting season in midfall, whereas spring-born juveniles averaged only 15.9 percent mortality over a similar period, which is 3 to 5 months longer for spring-born young. During the January-September breeding period, an average of 2.2 percent of the subadult females, 55.8 percent of the yearling females, and 95.4 percent of the adult females had at least one estrus cycle. Placental scar counts were significantly higher in adult breeders compared with yearlings and in summer-breeding adults compared with spring-breeding adults. During 1968-70, 60.9 percent of the adult females bred in winter-spring, 66.4 percent in June-August, and 27.3 percent during both periods. A representative group of 100 gray squirrels of both sexes could implant 110 embryos during a single January-September breeding period. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(2):426-438 Both gray and fox (S. niger) squirrels are important game animals in Ohio; in 1962, it was estimated that 306,331 Ohio hunters killed 1,428,876 squirrels (Donohoe 1965:73). Squirrel hunting ranks second only to cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) hunting in Ohio. Estimates of natality are needed for both species of squirrels to better assess the effects of various levels of mortality, particularly mortality induced by hunting, on population maintenance. This paper deals only with the gray squirrel, which contributes 79 percent of the squirrel harvest in the unglaciated portion of eastern Ohio (Donohoe 1965:76). The objectives of this study were to delineate the annual breeding season, to determine the effects of age and season of breeding on the fecundity of the female gray squirrel, and to determine the reliability of using corpora lutea and placental scar counts as measures of productivity of the gray squirrel in southeast Ohio.

Effects of Hunting and Mast Crops on a Squirrel Population

A 10-year evaluation was made of the effects of hunting and mast crops on a population of gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) and fox squirrels (S. niger) located on a 505.0-ha (1,250-acre) public shooting area in southeast Ohio. On a 95.7-ha (237-acre) research portion of the area, preseason squirrel densities averaged 1.91 squirrels per ha (0.77 squirrel per acre), hunting pressures averaged 4.5 gun-hours per ha (1.81 gun-hours per acre), and harvests averaged 0.89 squirrel per ha (0.36 squirrel per acre). The kill per ha each year was significantly correlated (P < 0.01) with preseason density per ha and with total gun-hours expended. Annual mortality averaged 80 percent for adult and subadult gray squirrels and adult fox squirrels but only 69 percent for subadult fox squirrels. Hunters recovered an average of 45.1 percent of the available marked population each year, and hunting accounted for 55.2 percent of the annual mortality. Fall-to-fall densities of squirrels were unstable, with significant changes in density occurring in 6 of 10 years. The squirrel population fluctuated mainly in response to the mast crop the preceding fall, but fall harvests also affected subsequent squirrel densities, particularly for adult gray squirrels. Both harvests and population densities affected the subsequent survival of adult female gray squirrels; survival was highest when densities were less than 70 squirrels per 40.4 ha (100 acres). Mortality and/or dispersal exceeded natality after 1966, and fall densities and kill became increasingly dependent upon immigration from surrounding forests. The response of individual squirrels to a good-to-heavy seed crop included: (1) improved survival of summer-born young, (2) a lower rate of emigration of both juvenile and subadult squirrels, (3) an increase in fecundity of breeding females, and (4) a higher rate of survival of adult gray squirrels in response to an increase in the size of the hickory (Carya spp.) seed crop. At least 58.9 kg (130 lb) of sound tree seed per 0.4 ha was needed to sustain reasonably high squirrel densities. A minimum of 3.2-3.7 m2 of basal area of mast-producing species per 0.4 ha (35-40 ft2/acre) is needed to produce this amount of tree seed, and 1.0-1.4 m' (10-15 ft2) of basal area should be hickory species of seed-producing size. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(1):1-25 This paper reports a 10-year evaluation of the effects of hunting and mast crops on a population of gray and fox squirrels located on a public hunting area in southeast Ohio. Annual hunting pressures are often several times higher on forests open to the general public than on privately owned forests (Allen 1954, Uhlig 1955, Fouch 1969, Nixon et al. 1974). Reported squirrel harvests from public forests have varied from lows of 13 percent (Uhlig 1955:26) and 15 percent (Kidd and Soileau 1965: 113) to highs of 45 percent (Nixon and McClain 1969:354), 46 percent (Chapman 1941:7), and 58 percent (Peterle and Fouch 1959, Nixon et al. 1974) of the estimated squirrel population. In most of these studies no evaluation was made of the subsequent effects of these harvests on the squirrel population. Mosby (1969:65) found that an average harvest of 37.4 percent of the estimated fall population of gray squirrels produced no significant difference in the average annual mortality rate compared with the rate on an adjacent unhunted area. The rate of population turnover, the annual mortality rate, and the rate of juvenile recruitment were somewhat higher under controlled hunting (Mosby 1969:71). In general, squirrel populations located in extensive forests and composed mainly of gray squirrels have been reported 1 A contribution of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Projects, Ohio W-105-R and Illinois W-66-R. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1):1975 1 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.30 on Fri, 27 May 2016 05:56:30 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 2 EFFECTS OF HUNTING ON SQUIRRELS Nixon et al. to be underharvested (Allen 1954, Uhlig 1955) and to fluctuate in size in response to the availability of forest seed crops, particularly acorns (Allen 1954:61, Christisen and Korschgen 1955:350, Sharp 1959:383, Nixon and McClain 1969:353, Barkalow et al. 1970:499). The response of both gray and fox squirrels to fluctuations in tree seed crops has been reported to include changes in fecundity (Allen 1943, Uhlig 1955) and in the survival and/or dispersal rates for juveniles (Uhlig 1955, Barkalow et al. 1970). We acknowledge C. McKibben, J. Ely, R. Beal, R. Dicken, and R. Stoll, Ohio Division of Wildlife, who assisted with livetrapping, mast collections, and operation of the checking station. S. Havera, Illinois Natural History Survey, assisted with the statistical analysis, and H. C. Schultz, W. R. Edwards, and G. C. Sanderson, Illinois Natural History Survey, reviewed the manu-

Food Habits of Squirrels in Southeast Ohio

Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis and S. niger) food habits were investigated in southeast Ohio from March, 1962, through September, 1966, to determine the seasonally important food species and to relate these data to present timber management guides for the central hardwoods. The distribution of the 833 samples was: winter-60; spring-77; summer-144; fall-552. The important foods in decreasing order of occurrence were hickory nuts, beechnuts, acorns, fungi, black walnuts, plant leaves, yellow buckeye nuts, tuliptree samaras, flowering dogwood drupes, ironwood nuts, and hop hornbeam nuts. Hickory nuts, beechnuts, and acorns occurred in 75.8 percent of the samples and made up 67.4 percent of the total volume of foods eaten. Animal foods, chiefly insects, occurred in 15.1 percent of the samples but made up less than 2 percent of the total volume. Fall food preferences were similar between gray and fox squirrels except that beechnuts were found in significantly greater frequency in gray squirrel stomachs. Live-trap capture frequencies suggested that gray squirrels utilized the beech-maple type in early fall more than fox squirrels. Hickory nuts and beechnuts were ingested significantly more often and in greater amounts than acoms during the fall. Squirrel food production was adequate under past uneven-age silvicultural methods but recent acceptance of even-aged regeneration silviculture using clearcuts may prove detrimental to some squirrel food species. Present market conditions discriminate against beech, hickory, elm, maple, and buckeye, all important squirrel foods. Silvicultural techniques should aim to retain 9-18 ft2 of basal area per acre of these species on areas where squirrel management is important. For forests where timber production has priority, the suggested basal area should be retained as crop trees until rotation age following clearcuts. Because of their market value, the oaks, black walnut, and tuliptree will be well represented in most regenerated stands. Our purpose in investigating the food habits of squirrels was to provide quantitative data regarding the seasonally important food species and to relate these data to current timber management guides applied to forested areas where squirrel management is also important. The qualitative food preferences of gray and fox squirrels have been determined for much of the squirrel range encompassed by the central hardwood and Appalachian Highlands forest regions (DenUyl 1962: 137, and Korstian 1962:178 for regional boundaries). Observations of squirrels in the act of feeding, the characteristic cuttings of feeding squirrels, and squirrel food caches have all been utilized in food habits studies (D. L. Allen 1943:160, Brown 1 A contribution of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project, Ohio W-105-R. 2 Present address: Department of Botany, Ohio University, Athens. 294 and Yeager 1945:496, J. M. Allen 1952:16, Barber 1954, Uhlig 1955:84). A quantitative determination of squirrel food habits based on large samples of stomachs has not been reported, chiefly because of the difficulties in identifying the finely masticated stomach contents of these animals (Barber 1954). Studies that utilized squirrel stomachs were either limited in scope (Baumgartner 1940:84) or were based on stomachs collected only during the fall months (Chapman 1938:320). We acknowledge the assistance of James Ely, Ohio Division of Wildlife, in collecting squirrels; Kenneth Russell, Ohio Division of Wildlife, for statistical assistance, and Dr. W. C. Stehr, Department of Zoology, Ohio University, Dr. W. G. Gambill and M. T. Vermillion, Department of Botany, Ohio University, for aid in identifying insect, moss, and fungi material, respectively. We thank Leroy Korschgen, Missouri Conservation Commission, Dr. Henri This content downloaded from 157.55.39.27 on Wed, 07 Sep 2016 06:34:52 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms FOOD HABITS OF SQUIRRELS IN OHIO Nixon et al. 295 Seibert, Ohio University, and Kenneth Laub, Ohio Division of Wildlife, for critically reading the manuscript.

The Inertia Effect in Measuring Threshold Populations

The Inertia Effect in Measuring Threshold Populations Stanley D. Brunn * INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of inertia on the entry values for goods and services in two contrasting socioeconomic areas. This is a phenomenon which has only been hinted at in the literature. (1) The conditions accounting for the variety and number of goods and services and for different threshold populations in a central place system will vary over time and space. The differences will be related to such determinants as economic productivity, residential and employment patterns, and shopping habits. The question posed is: in the process of growth in an area, does the population lag behind the number of services, or in an area of decreasing population, does the rate of decline for services lag behind that of the population? This paper focuses on the inertia problem and attempts to ferret out its effect on threshold population values. (2) The problem is examined in a total of 64 randomly selected central places of less than 5000 population in two areas: a poverty-stricken area of Appalachia (southeast Ohio) and a productive Middle Western agricultural area (northwest Ohio). Rural southeast Ohio, the depressed economic area lying within the Columbus-Wheeling-Ashland triangle, has social and economic characteristics similar to parts of Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The northwest area is similar to parts of Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa that are acquiring a more urban and rural nonfarm character than an agricultural one. This study area is included within the Toledo-Lima-Ft. Wayne industrial complex. At present, the two rural areas of Ohio are experiencing different demographic trends and have contrasting levels of economic vitality. These contrasts exist today to approximately the same extent as in 1940. At that time, the northwest was the most productive agricultural section of the state and the southeast the poorest. This is still true. On top of the substandard agricultural and industrial base for southeast Ohio, the strip mining interests have added further impetus to the economic decline. In the past 25 years, the population of northwest Ohio has increased 15 per cent, while the southeast has increased only one per cent. During this same period, the southeast lost over two-thirds of its rural farm population, a condition that clearly affected the number and variety of services rendered by agricultural trade centers. The populations of all southeastern Ohio small urban centers have declined since 1940 except for the county seats and a few industrial suburbs. This decline also occurred in the townships. In contrast to this rapid outmigration , most of the townships with urban centers in northwest Ohio increased their populations during the 1940-64 period. Almost all the selected central places in both study areas lost functional units between 1940 and 1964. In general, the larger the population, the greater the absolute decline in functional units. The largest losses in numbers were for general stores, restaurants, food stores, and auto repair •Dr. Brunn is assistant professor of geography at the University of Florida, Gainesville. The paper was accepted for publication in December 1967. Vol. VII, 19677 shops. In addition to a decline in necessity services, there was a decrease in the number and variety of such luxury establishments as bakeries, shoe stores, and meat markets. A few services were found only in 1940, viz., blacksmiths and harness shops. Several others, such as frozen food lockers and sporting goods stores, appeared only in 1964. (3) HYPOTHESES. It is hypothesized, on the basis of the economic, social, and demographic conditions of the study areas today and the changes they have undergone, that lower threshold population values will appear for most goods and services in the northwest rather than in the southeast. This condition is expected in 1940 and 1964. In the main, it is argued that a smaller population base is needed for a given good to appear in small urban centers in northwest Ohio. Here the advantages of higher incomes, a higher population density, an increasing urban population, a growing industrial base, and excellent transportation links should contribute to the ease of starting and duplicating economic activities. Opposite conditions exist in the southeastern part of the state...

NEED FOR GENERAL PRACTITIONERS IN AN OHIO AREA

To the Editor: We are writing you in the hope that you may refer some young physicians to our community. East Liverpool is a fine community located in Southeast Ohio with a population of approximately 22,500 in the city limits and immediate area. We have a good general hospital, fully accredited. Our staff is very good but, unfortunately, we don't have enough physicians. There is ample work and there are facilities for at least five more doctors in the field of General Practice and Surgery. We thought perhaps your organization could direct this letter to a young doctor who is not positive where he is going to locate. Our doctors are earning fine incomes but they are working too hard and if we don't get some new ones our situation is going to be more serious. Please acquaint the members of your organization of our need. Any inquiries may be addressed to me at East Liverpool City Hospital.

Repressuring and Initial Pressuring

Since 1911, when J. L. Dunn first used compressed air for repressuringdepleted oil sands in southeast Ohio, the rejuvenation of many depleted oilfields has been directly due to repressuring by means of air or gas. Developments in repressuring in recent years have resulted in its successfuluse in the early life of some deep, high-pressure oil fields, conserving thenatural gas dissolved in and associated with the oil by returning it to theproducing oil sand after it has been compressed above the existing rockpressure of the reservoir. One of the most successful operations of this typeis that of the Humble Oil &amp;Refining Co., on the DeWalt salt dome atSugarland, Texas. I quote from a personal communication with reference to this field: "Structurally, the field is dome-shaped, having a closure of approximately350 ft. Production comes from a sandy shale interbedded with a clean sand andlying over a cap rock which is about 3400 ft. deep on top of thestructure." A feature of the operation of this field is the production of the requiredamount of oil with the minimum of gas production. Wells on top of the dome havehigh gas-oil ratios, while those down structure have lower ratios, dependingupon the distance of the well from the peak. To date, it has been possible toproduce the oil 'needed from the wells circling the dome above the water zoneand below the gas zone, and in this manner the average gas-oil ratio has beenkept low. The gas from all separators is turned into a gas system which servesthe entire field. From this system, all drilling rigs and utilities requiringgas for a fuel draw their requirements, and the remainder of the gas (abouttwo-thirds of the production) is delivered to a compressor plant which booststhe pressure until it can be returned to the sand at the top of the dome wherethe rock pressure is 1400 lb. per square inch. "The Sugarland wells produce through 2-in. tubing with a %-in. choke in onewing of the well-head manifold. The pressure builds up as high as 1300 lb. persquare inch on the casing while on the tubing it varies from 0 to 900 lb. persquare inch, depending upon the amount of gas produced with the oil."

Rise and Decline in Production of Petroleum in Ohio and Indiana

The existence of petroleum in the rocks of Ohio and Indiana seems to havebeen first shown by wells dug for salt. The fuel, however, was objectionableowing to its odor and inflammability. Not until the Drake well was drilled in1859 did the people appreciate the value of rock oil, and then they at oncebegan plans to secure the coveted fuel. The first successful well in these twostates was near Macksburg, in southeast Ohio, where at a depth of 59 ft. (17m.) oil was found in commercial quantity (1860). A year later this fuel wassecured on Cow Run, in the same county, and at about the same time in Noble, Morgan and perhaps other counties in that part of Ohio. The second great step in the production of oil in Ohio and Indiana was taken in1884 when the reservoir of natural gas in the Trenton limestone of northwestOhio was tapped, and where a year later oil was secured in the same formation.Petroleum in this limestone was obtained in Indiana in 1889. The third step in the production of oil in Ohio and Indiana is associated withthe Clinton sand of Ohio. Natural gas in large volume was discovered in thatrock at Lancaster, in 1887, and the area has been extended until it has becomethe largest individual producer in the world. The presence of natural gas insuch great volume all but demonstrated to the driller that oil lay hidden nearby. Soon the search for it was started but not until 1899 was petroleum incommercial quantity found in the Clinton sand, and a large pool was not locatedin it until 1907. The fourth step in the development of the industry was taken in 1913, when thepool in Sullivan County, in western Indiana, was opened. The producing rock isthe Huron sandstone, which is the topmost member of the Mississippiansystem. AIME 065–15

Resume of Pennsylvania-New York Oil Field

Pennsylvania will be remembered, as long as oil is produced, as the cradleof the industry of petroleum in North America. It was on Oil Creek, nearTitusville, Venango Co., that Col. Edwin L. Drake, superintendent for theSeneca Oil Co., brought in the first commercial oil well on Aug. 28, 1859.Great difficulty was experienced in getting the well down to the producingdepth of 69 ft. (21 m.) with the spring-pole system then in vogue for punchingshallow water wells, so the novel expedient of driving an iron tube through thesurface clays and quicksand was finally resorted to. The well had an initialyield of 25 bbl. a day on the pump, but soon went off, though 2000 bbl. wereproduced by the end of the year. With the Drake well a success, a young industry sprang into being, the rapidgrowth of which has been second to none in the country and the value of whoseproduct is only surpassed by that of coal. For years the only producingterritory, the Pennsylvania-New York field attained its greatest production in1891, when the bringing in of the McDonald pool, between Pittsburgh and theWest Virginia line, gave a total of over 33,000,000 bbl. At present the field, combined with West Virginia and southeast Ohio, gives 25,000,000 barrels. Geology and Stratigraphy In general, the Appalachian field is a huge geosyncline, the axis of which runsroughly northeast-southwest, from north of the New York state line souththrough Brookeville, Kittanning, Pittsburgh, Washington, through the southwestcorner of the state of Pennsylvania into West Virginia. Minor folding hasaccompanied or followed the dominant fold of the field, and it is from thesestructures near the Pennsylvania-West Virginia line and their influence on theaccumulation of oil and gas that I. C. White, state geologist of West Virginia, obtained his evidence for anticlinal guidance of prospecting. Many horizons in the geologic column of the field serve as reservoirs, andthere are several pools that have wells producing side by side from differentand widely vertically separated strata. AIME 065–18