South American Camelids Research Articles

Camelids: new players in the international animal production context.

The Camelidae family comprises the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), and four species of South American camelids: llama (Lama glama), alpaca (Lama pacos) guanaco (Lama guanicoe), and vicuña (Vicugna vicugna). The main characteristic of these species is their ability to cope with either hard climatic conditions like those found in arid regions (Bactrian and dromedary camels) or high-altitude landscapes like those found in South America (South American camelids). Because of such interesting physiological and adaptive traits, the interest for these animals as livestock species has increased considerably over the last years. In general, the main animal products obtained from these animals are meat, milk, and hair fiber, although they are also used for races and work among other activities. In the near future, climate change will likely decrease agricultural areas for animal production worldwide, particularly in the tropics and subtropics where competition with crops for human consumption is a major problem already. In such conditions, extensive animal production could be limited in some extent to semi-arid rangelands, subjected to periodical draughts and erratic patterns of rainfall, severely affecting conventional livestock production, namely cattle and sheep. In the tropics and subtropics, camelids may become an important protein source for humans. This article aims to review some of the recent literature about the meat, milk, and hair fiber production in the six existing camelid species highlighting their benefits and drawbacks, overall contributing to the development of camelid production in the framework of food security.

Seropositivity to Leptospira interrogans in a herd of vicuñas (Vicugna vicugna) under captivity in northern Chile

Twenty-one vicunas (Vicugna vicugna) from a Chilean breeding unit were tested to serovars Pomona, Canicola, Copenhageni, Ballum and Grippotyphosa of Leptospira interrogans using the microscopic microagglutination technique. The results showed that 23.8% of the samples reacted to the serovar Grippotyphosa which has been related to abortions in South American camelids.

In silico identification of immunotherapeutic and diagnostic targets in the glycosylphosphatidylinositol metabolism of the coccidian Sarcocystis aucheniae.

Meat of the South American camelids (SACs) llama and alpaca is an important source of animal protein and income for rural families in the Andes, and a product with significant growth potential for local and international markets. However, infestation with macroscopic cysts of the coccidian protozoon Sarcocystis aucheniae, a parasitosis known as SAC sarcocystosis, significantly hampers its commercialization. There are no validated methods to diagnose the presence of S. aucheniae cysts other than carcass examination. Moreover, there are no available drugs or vaccines to cure or prevent SAC sarcocystosis. Identification of relevant molecules that act at the host-pathogen interface can significantly contribute to the control of this disease. It has been shown for other pathogenic protozoa that glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) is a critical molecule implicated in parasite survival and pathogenicity. This study focused on the identification of the enzymes that participate in the S. aucheniae GPI biosynthetic pathway and the repertoire of the parasite GPI-anchored proteins (GPI-APs). To this aim, RNA was extracted from parasite cysts and the transcriptome was sequenced and translated into amino acid sequences. The generated database was mined using sequences of well-characterized GPI biosynthetic enzymes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Toxoplasma gondii. Eleven enzymes predicted to participate in the S. aucheniae GPI biosynthetic pathway were identified. On the other hand, the database was searched for proteins carrying an N-terminal signal peptide and a single C-terminal transmembrane region containing a GPI anchor signal. Twenty-four GPI-anchored peptides were identified, of which nine are likely S. aucheniae-specific, and 15 are homologous to membrane proteins of other coccidians. Among the latter, 13 belong to the SRS domain superfamily, an extensive group of coccidian GPI-anchored proteins that mediate parasite interaction with their host. Phylogenetic analysis showed a great degree of intra- and inter-specific divergence among SRS family proteins. In vitro and in vivo experiments are needed to validate S. aucheniae GPI biosynthetic enzymes and GPI-APs as drug targets and/or as vaccine or diagnostic antigens.

Metodología para la identificación y priorización de las actividades económicas que contribuyen a la estrategia de innovación para la especialización inteligente: Caso región de Arequipa

El estudio presenta una propuesta metodológica para la identificación y priorización de actividades económicas que contribuyen a la estrategia de innovación para la especialización inteligente en la región de Arequipa, considera datos tanto cuantitativos como cualitativos, basados en información estadística y calificaciones otorgadas por los actores que representan la hélice cuádruple ( academia, gobierno, empresa y sociedad civil), del Sistema Regional deInnovación (SRI), respectivamente. Estos datos definidos en un marco de factores críticos, como el potencial de crecimiento económico, competitividad, conectividad y agrupación, permitirán determinar la priorización de las actividades económicas en la región. El resultado de la aplicación de la metodología prioriza la actividad minera; actividad agrícola-agroindustrial; y actividad manufacturera: textil de camélidos sudamericanos en la región de Arequipa, Perú.

7 Pregnancy from a vitrified-warmed alpaca pre-implantation embryo

The alpaca (Vicugna pacos) is a ruminant livestock species in the South American camelid family. There are more than 9 million South American camelids globally that make important contributions to the livelihoods of rural farmers through conversion of low quality roughages to high quality food and fibre. Reproductive biotechnologies for alpacas are not well developed compared with those for other ruminant livestock species. In particular, embryo cryopreservation technologies are lacking. The objective of this study was to evaluate under field conditions a vitrification protocol originally developed for old world camels that we adapted for use in alpacas. Potential donors were evaluated for follicular development using a 7.5-MHz ultrasound probe. Hembras (sexually mature female alpacas) with ovarian follicles 7-10mm in diameter were behaviour tested to determine sexual receptivity, and receptive females were naturally mated to a proven herd sire. At the time of breeding, non-superovulated donors (n=4) received 30μg gonadorelin. Embryos were nonsurgically collected 7 days after breeding and handled at 20°C. Diameter of harvested embryos (n=4 quality grade 1 hatched expanded blastocysts) was measured using an eyepiece reticle. All recovered embryos were placed individually into 0.5-mL drops of vitrification solution (VS1: 1.4M glycerol) for 5min, 0.5-mL drops of VS2 (1.4 M glycerol + 3.6M ethylene glycol) for 5min, 0.05-mL drops of VS3 (3.4 M glycerol + 4.6M ethylene glycol) for 20s, and 0.05-mL drops of VS3 for 20s while loading into open-pulled straws (OPS). Each OPS was plunged directly into liquid nitrogen for storage for 29 days. At warming, each OPS was submerged into a 1-mL drop of warming solution 1 (WS1: 0.5M galactose) for 1min followed by 1min in WS2 (0.25 M galactose) for 5min before being incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2 in humidified air for 21h in 1mL of Syngro holding medium supplemented with 10% (vol/vol) alpaca serum. Embryos that grew during culture (n=2) were transferred individually into synchronous recipients, and embryos that did not appear to grow (n=2) were transferred together as a pair. Prior to embryo transfer, potential recipients were evaluated ultrasonographically as described previously. Hembras with ovarian follicles 7-10mm in diameter were behaviour tested, and sexually receptive females received 30μg gonadorelin 6 days before embryo transfer. Final selection of recipients (n=3) was based on presence of a corpus luteum and nonreceptive behaviour to a herd sire 24h before transfer. Pregnancy was detected ultrasonographically, and fetal heartbeat was detected 29 days post-transfer in one of the three recipients. Ultrasound at 177 days post-transfer revealed that the pregnancy, generated from a 400μm×375μm vitrified-warmed embryo that had grown in culture, was still ongoing. If this pregnancy results in the birth of a live cria (newborn alpaca), it would represent-to the best of our knowledge-the world's first cria born from a cryopreserved alpaca pre-implantation embryo. It would also demonstrate the potential utility of this protocol under field conditions.

Geometric morphometrics of large South American camelids and their potential for the taxonomical identification in archaeological sites of the northern Argentina

ABSTRACT The large South American camelids, the llama (Lama glama) and the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), present a low level of morphological variation in the skeleton and a significant overlap in their body size at population scale. Therefore, if we consider the inter-specific and intra-specific variability, it is difficult to distinguish between wild (guanaco) and domestic (llama) species, based only on osteometric analysis of remains from archaeological sites. Techniques based on 2D geometric morphometric were applied in order to test their power for the taxonomic identification of these two camelids species through shape study of three anatomic elements: the first anterior and posterior phalanges, and the glenoid fossa of scapula. A total of 59 skeletal elements of 29 modern individuals and 14 archaeological specimens were analysed. The morphogeometric evaluation differentiated the skeletal element shapes of modern camelids groups. The archaeological samples revealed the presence of llama and guanaco in the archaeological record of the Argentinean Northwest at 1900–1300 BP. Nevertheless, domestic species were dominant in Antumpa site, whereas wild species were better represented in Condor II. This exploratory study provided an advance in the efforts of taxonomic identification of bone remains from the shape analysis performed on modern individuals of living species.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenous and transdermal flunixin meglumine in alpacas

Selection of drugs for use in South American Camelids (SAC) is difficult due to lack of approved products for use in these species. Drugs and drug dosages are selected from limited published data or extrapolated from other species. Administration of intravenous (IV) medications to SAC can be difficult due to challenges in restraint, limited venous access, and unique cervical anatomy. Pharmaceuticals administered routes other than IV are attractive for use in SAC. Flunixin meglumine is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used in many species for its antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties. In cattle, flunixin meglumine is specifically labeled for IV administration. A new transdermal (TD) formulation of flunixin has been developed and approved for use in cattle. The topical nature and longer duration of action compared to IV flunixin make this product ideal for use in SAC. The purpose of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of IV and TD flunixin meglumine in alpacas.

Modern guanaco (Lama guanicoe, Camelidae) bezoars: An approach towards identification in the fossil record

ObjectiveProvide a frame of reference for the recognition and interpretation of bezoars recovered from archeological and paleontological sites. Materials49 bezoars from extant guanaco (Lama guanicoe) were analyzed and compared with five objects previously identified as bezoars, recovered from Holocene archeological sites of the Argentine Pampas. MethodsSize, shape, weight, external and internal features, and mineralogical composition were evaluated in both modern and archeological bezoars using nondestructive and destructive methods. ResultsModern and archeological bezoars are formed by calcium phosphate and display great morphological variability linked to ante-mortem processes, taphonomic alterations, and anthropic activity. ConclusionsMorphometry, along with external and internal features and mineral composition, are useful tools for the identification and interpretation of bezoars in the fossil record. SignificanceThis study offers new information on the etiology, mechanisms of formation, and means of interpreting the presence of bezoars, a common pathology in South American camelids, in the fossil record. LimitationsThe features of fossil bezoars do not provide accurate identification of the animal that produced them. Suggestions for Further ResearchFurther analyses on modern bezoars belonging to other species of mammals are needed in order to enhance the interpretation of bezoars in the fossil record.

Modelo bioeconómico de esquila única en el manejo de la fibra de vicuña

La vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) es un camélido sudamericano que se distribuye a lo largo de Cordillera de los Andes, con una mayor concentración de la población en el altiplano Perú - Bolivia, norte de Chile y Argentina. El objetivo de la investigación fue determinar los valores del máximo técnico (edad máxima de esquila), óptimo técnico (edad de mayor producción de fibra) y óptimo económico (periodicidad de esquila) para la esquila de la fibra de vicuña en función al modelo bioeconomico basado en la información del Centro Nacional de Conservación de Camélidos Sudamericanos sede Cala-Cala, en la provincia San Antonio de Putina, región Puno, Perú. El modelo bioeconómico corresponde a la esquila única a precio constante bajo cinco escenarios para tasas de descuento (niveles de rentabilidad) desde el 9% al 30%, en ello, se determinan los valores del máximo técnico, óptimo técnico y óptimo económico. Los resultados mostraron que el valor del máximo técnico para vicuñas hembras corresponde a 15.8 años, en tanto que para vicuñas machos alcanza 17.76 años, lo anterior evidencia que las vicuñas machos viven más que las vicuñas hembras, ello se explica a factores ambientales en el caso de las vicuñas hembras. Asimismo, se observa que, en un escenario donde la unidad productora de fibra de vicuña enfrenta diversos costos de oportunidad (niveles de rentabilidad), se observa que la presión sobre la especie será más exigente en la medida que la tasa de descuento sea más alta, variando la periodicidad de esquila óptima desde 2.6 a 1.25 años correspondiente a una tasa de descuento de 9% y 30%, respectivamente.

Current anthelmintic treatment is not always effective at controlling strongylid infections in German alpaca herds

BackgroundEndoparasites are considered a major health problem of South American camelids as shown in a recent survey among German and Austrian camelid owners. Although prophylactic and therapeutic measures such as application of anthelmintics are commonly used, treatment efficacy is usually not assessed. Owners have expressed significant concerns regarding the effect of antiparasitic therapy, so this study aimed to evaluate the outcome of anthelmintic treatment in German alpaca herds with different drugs.ResultsOverall, 617 samples from 538 clinically healthy alpacas > 1 year-old from 27 farms (n = 11–157 animals/herd) were examined. The most common parasites detected by flotation were Eimeria spp. (75.1%) followed by strongylids (55.0%), Nematodirus spp. (19.3%), cestodes (3.1%) and Trichuris (2.7%). After initial coproscopical examination by flotation and strongylid egg quantification by the McMaster technique, positive animals excreting at least 150 eggs per gram of faeces were included in a faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) using fenbendazole (n = 71 samples), moxidectin (n = 71) or monepantel (n = 66). Pre-treatment larval cultures (n = 23 positive pooled farm samples) revealed Haemonchus (87% of the farms), Cooperia (43.5%), Trichostrongylus (21.7%), Ostertagia (13.0%), Nematodirus and Oesophagostomum (4.3% each). Fenbendazole treatment reduced egg excretion by 45%, moxidectin by 91% and monepantel by 96%. On the farm level, 13/18 farms that used fenbendazole, 6/6 farms that used moxidectin and 2/5 farms that used monepantel had individual FECR values < 90% (fenbendazole) or < 95% (moxidectin, monepantel). Haemonchus and Cooperia were overrepresented on the farms with reduced treatment efficacy.ConclusionsGastrointestinal strongylids are common in German alpacas and fenbendazole in particular was not sufficiently effective to reduce strongylid egg excretion. Although the FECRT could not unambiguously determine anthelmintic resistance in the present study, the finding that small ruminant strongylids, especially Haemonchus, are common in alpacas indicates that determination of effective anthelmintic doses, monitoring of efficacy and adapted (selective) treatment regimens must be implemented as part of sustainable deworming practices in this species in accordance with recommendations for ruminants.

Chromosome-Level Alpaca Reference Genome VicPac3.1 Improves Genomic Insight Into the Biology of New World Camelids.

The development of high-quality chromosomally assigned reference genomes constitutes a key feature for understanding genome architecture of a species and is critical for the discovery of the genetic blueprints of traits of biological significance. South American camelids serve people in extreme environments and are important fiber and companion animals worldwide. Despite this, the alpaca reference genome lags far behind those available for other domestic species. Here we produced a chromosome-level improved reference assembly for the alpaca genome using the DNA of the same female Huacaya alpaca as in previous assemblies. We generated 190X Illumina short-read, 8X Pacific Biosciences long-read and 60X Dovetail Chicago® chromatin interaction scaffolding data for the assembly, used testis and skin RNAseq data for annotation, and cytogenetic map data for chromosomal assignments. The new assembly VicPac3.1 contains 90% of the alpaca genome in just 103 scaffolds and 76% of all scaffolds are mapped to the 36 pairs of the alpaca autosomes and the X chromosome. Preliminary annotation of the assembly predicted 22,462 coding genes and 29,337 isoforms. Comparative analysis of selected regions of the alpaca genome, such as the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), the region involved in the Minute Chromosome Syndrome (MCS) and candidate genes for high-altitude adaptations, reveal unique features of the alpaca genome. The alpaca reference genome VicPac3.1 presents a significant improvement in completeness, contiguity and accuracy over VicPac2 and is an important tool for the advancement of genomics research in all New World camelids.

Evaluation of animal welfare conditions of South American camelids admitted to the Huancavelica municipal slaughterhouse, Peru

La crianza de camélidos sudamericanos domésticos, alpaca y llama, es la principal fuente de subsistencia en la zona altoandina peruana. El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar las características de manejo y transporte hacia el camal de los camélidos sudamericanos, considerando los criterios basados en el bienestar animal, usando las lesiones contusas halladas en la carcasa como indicador. Se recolectó información del camal municipal de la ciudad de Huancavelica, Perú. Se seleccionaron 203 canales y se revisaron después de la faena para observar la presencia de lesiones. Se registró información sobre la cantidad de animales transportados, detalles del transporte y características del manejo de los animales. De las 203 canales evaluadas se contabilizó un total de 1,418 lesiones con un promedio de 6.9 ± 0.2 por carcasa, además se registraron cuatro animales con contusión generalizada (1.9 %). Se contabilizaron 27 medios de transporte, siendo la mitad de ellos autos (50.0 %). La presentación de lesiones grados 2 y 3 están asociadas al traslado en cualquier tipo de vehículo (OR= 2.20; IC95%: 1.27 – 3.82) y a la no restricción de visión (OR= 2.26; IC95%: 1.66 – 3.06). También las lesiones extensas están asociadas al tiempo de espera pre-sacrificio mayor a las 24 h (OR= 1.42; IC95%: 0.99 – 2.03). Se evidencia que las malas características de los vehículos, malas condiciones de transporte y manejo, aumentan la probabilidad de encontrar lesiones en las canales. Por lo tanto, no se cumplen con los criterios de bienestar animal durante el manejo y transporte de los camélidos sudamericanos.

Intracranial abscess formation in an adult alpaca: a case report

BackgroundIntracranial abscess formation is an extremely rare and sporadically documented disease in South American Camelids (SACs). Herein we report the first case of otogenic brain abscess formation in this species.Case presentationA 4 years old female alpaca was presented to our veterinary hospital with a 6 month history of neurologic disorder symptoms, mainly head tilt to the right and emaciation. A comprehensive workup (ultrasound and computed tomography) revealed irreversible cranial nerve abnormalities, extensive lesions in the region of external, middle and internal right ear including destruction of bony structures (tympanic bulla, parts of temporal bone) and severe brain deformation caused by an intracranial abscess. The lesion was up to 6x7x4 cm and occupying almost 40% of the cranial cavity. No pathological findings were evident in other organs or structures. The late referral of the alpaca at this advanced stage of destructive disease precluded surgical intervention.ConclusionsThis case report describes the clinical signs, diagnostic procedures and pathological findings in an adult female alpaca suffering from cranial nerve abnormalities caused by a massive otogenic brain abscess. Camelids suffering from otitis may not present with clinical signs until the pathology is severe. The importance of considering intracranial abscess formation as differential diagnosis in SACs showing the merest hint of nerve deficits cannot be emphasized enough in order to diagnose such pathological processes at an early and treatable stage.

The effect of elemental Zn boluses on concentrations of Zn in serum and faeces of South American camelids

ABSTRACTAims: To monitor the effect of using long-acting Zn boluses on the Zn status of a group of South American camelids, using measurements of concentrations of Zn in faeces and serum.Methods: As part of a facial eczema (FE) prevention programme, 15 camelids were treated with long-acting Zn boluses designed for preventing FE in sheep. Based on bodyweight, 13 alpacas (Vicugna pacos) received two boluses (26.4 g Zn/bolus) and two llamas (Lama glama) received three boluses. In order to monitor Zn status, measurements were made of concentrations of Zn in serum and faeces immediately prior to bolus treatment (Week 0) and 4, 6, 8 and 10 weeks later. Gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity in serum was measured at Weeks 0 and 8.Results: Two alpacas regurgitated the boluses; in one case the animal was quickly re-treated but this was not possible in the second animal. Mean concentrations of Zn in faeces were higher at all time points compared to Week 0 (p < 0.001). Peak concentrations were measured at Week 8, and concentrations >120 mg/kg fresh weight (FW), suggested as being protective in calves, were only measured in all (13/13) treated camelids at Week 6. Mean concentrations of Zn in serum differed between weeks of sampling but changes were not consistent, and concentrations did not exceed 18 μmol/L following treatment. There was no evidence of a natural sporidesmin challenge during the study period and activity of GGT in serum of all animals was <45 IU/L.Conclusions: Treatment with Zn boluses significantly increased concentrations of Zn in faeces but not in serum, but peak concentrations in faeces were only detected 8 weeks after treatment.Clinical Relevance: The delay in achieving concentrations of Zn in faeces which were associated with protection against FE in calves, combined with the difficulties of administering boluses to camelids, means that we do not believe that Zn boluses should be used as the primary method for preventing FE in camelids. We recommend that FE prevention in camelids should focus on minimising spore production in pasture through the use of fungicides, grazing management and alternative forages, with boluses only used when it is thought that these methods are unlikely to provide sufficient protection against FE. Such use should always be under the guidance of a veterinarian and monitoring of serum GGT activity should be used to ensure that FE control is being achieved.

Bronchioalveolar carcinoma in an adult alpaca (Vicugna pacos)

BackgroundThis report describes a case of a bronchiolar adenocarcinoma in a 6-year old alpaca mare. For the first time in an alpaca, neoplasia was classified by histopathology as a lepidic-predominant bronchiolar adenocarcinoma.Case presentationThe mare was referred to the Clinic for Ruminants after a 6-week period of forced breathing and weight loss. The clinical examination included complete blood count, blood chemistry, ultrasound, radiographs and a CT-scan of the thorax. A bilateral pneumothorax and several, structures within the lung parenchyma were diagnosed. Differential diagnosis included neoplasia, tuberculosis and fungal granulomas. The owner requested euthanasia due to the mare’s ongoing deterioration. At postmortem examination, the granulomatous changes in the lungs were histopathologically classified as lepidic dominant bronchiolar adenocarcinoma.ConclusionsNeoplastic diseases are more often seen in South American camelids compared to other farm animal species. The use of a CT scan was helpful in classifying the lung lesions and give a clear prognosis.

Dichelobacter nodosus in sheep, cattle, goats and South American camelids in Switzerland—Assessing prevalence in potential hosts in order to design targeted disease control measures

Footrot is a contagious foot disease caused by the bacterium Dichelobacter nodosus (D. nodosus) that affects sheep worldwide. Due to substantial economic and welfare impact, various countries have developed control programs against footrot. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to estimate the national prevalence of virulent and benign D. nodosus in Switzerland in the four domestic ruminant species sheep, cattle, goats and South American camelids (SAC) to detect potential host populations and to propose targeted disease control measures. Risk factors for infection with the virulent strain of D. nodosus, based on a survey carried out among farmers, were investigated on animal and herd level. Overall, 613 farms and 2920 animals were investigated during 2017–18 applying a two-stage cluster sampling strategy. A Real-Time PCR method for simultaneous detection of virulent and benign strains of D. nodosus was used for the first time in such a large study. On animal level, the true prevalence (TP) of virulent D. nodosus in sheep was estimated at 16.9% (95% confidence interval (CI95%): 9.5–24.3%). In cattle and goats no virulent D. nodosus was detected and in SAC an apparent prevalence (AP) of 0.2% (CI95%: 0.0–0.4%) was observed. On farm level, a TP of virulent D. nodosus of 16.2% (CI95%: 8.4–25.2%) for sheep and an AP of 1.5% (CI95%: 0.3–5.2%) for SAC herds was estimated. Since the Swiss control program only targets the virulent strains of D. nodosus, it was concluded that cattle, goats and SAC do not play a role in footrot epidemiology in Switzerland. Adult sheep were at higher risk of infection for virulent D. nodosus compared to lambs and yearlings. On herd level, risk factors for infection with virulent D. nodosus in sheep were earlier occurence of footrot, winter compared to summer and autumn, and goat contact on pasture. Liming pastures had a protective effect on D. nodosus infection. For benign D. nodosus, the TP in sheep was 6.3% (CI95%: 1.6–11.0%) and in cattle 88.4% (CI95%: 83.8–93.0%). The TP for benign D. nodosus in sheep farms was 2.8% (CI95%: 0.0–10.5%) and in cattle farms 95.9% (CI95%: 91.7–98.1%). In goat and SAC farms, the AP was 6.6% (CI95%: 3.4–11.5%) and 7.4% (CI95%: 3.8–13.1%), respectively. These findings could be relevant for wild ruminants such as Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex), which can develop clinical footrot after infection with benign D. nodosus. The findings of this study are crucial for assessing targeted disease control measures in Switzerland.

Ultrastructural Description of Sarcocystis Sp. in Cardiac Muscle of Naturally Infected Alpacas (Vicugna pacos)

Recently, it was proposed the name of Sarcocystis masoni n. sp. for the Sarcocystis that causes microcyst in skeletal muscle of South American camelids. However, there are no ultrastructural reports of microcysts of Sarcocystis in cardiac muscle of alpacas. This study reports ultrastructural features of microcysts of Sarcocystis sp. from cardiac muscle of naturally infected alpacas. Thirty alpacas (age range: three to five years) from the province of Junin, Peruvian Central Andes, were included in this study in January 2015. Cardiac muscle samples were evaluated by histology and transmission electron microscopy. Bradyzoites in cysts had typical characteristics of Apicomplexa including organelles, a large nucleus, micronemes, dense bodies, and polysaccharide granules. Moreover, cysts had a thin wall with numerous, short, finger-like shapes with rounded tip protrusions (0.51 × 0.17 μm). Sarcocystis sp. from the heart and S. masoni n. sp. from the skeletal muscle have similar ultrastructural characteristics.

Alopecia a potential adverse side effect of albendazole use in alpacas.

Albendazole is a benzimidazole derivative with anthelmintic activity. It is the treatment of choice for fasciolosis. The use of albendazole in South American camelids is common, however, there are no studies about the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of albendazole in alpacas and llamas. In the present study, a case of fiber loss (alopecia) in alpacas is described because of the suspected use of a high dose of albendazole. In a fasciolosis control program of an alpaca ranch located in the district of Nuñoa in Puno, Peru, 2184 alpacas were oral treated with albendazole (35-40 mg/kg). After 2 weeks of treatment the alpacas began to show loss of fiber in the abdomen, flanks and neck. The alpacas showed no other sign of disease. The alpacas recovered their fiber after 6 months. We suggest studies are needed to determine the safe dose of albendazole in alpacas.

Evaluation of SNP Genotyping in Alpacas Using the Bovine HD Genotyping Beadchip.

Alpacas are one of four South American Camelid species living in the highlands of the Andes. Production of alpaca fiber contributes to the economy of the region and the livelihood of many rural families. Fiber quantity and quality are important and in need of a modern breeding program based on genomic selection to accelerate genetic gain. To achieve this is necessary to discover enough molecular markers, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in particular, to provide genome coverage and facilitate genome wide association studies to fiber production characteristics. The aim of this study was to discover alpaca SNPs by genotyping forty alpaca DNA samples using the BovineHD Genotyping Beadchip. Data analysis was performed with GenomeStudio (Illumina) software. Because different filters and thresholds are reported in the literature we investigated the effects of no-call threshold (≥0.05, ≥0.15, and ≥0.25) and call frequency (≥0.9 and =1.0) in identifying positive SNPs. Average GC Scores, calculated as the average of the 10% and 50% GenCall scores for each SNP (≥0.70) and the GenTrain score ≥ 0.25 parameters were applied to all comparisons. SNPs with minor allele frequency (MAF) ≥ 0.05 or ≥ 0.01 were retained. Since detection of SNPs is based on the stable binding of oligonucleotide probes to the target DNA immediately adjacent to the variant nucleotide, all positive SNP flanking sequences showing perfect alignments between the bovine and alpaca genomes for the first 21 or 26 nucleotides flanking the variant nucleotide at either side were selected. Only SNPs localized in one scaffold were assumed unique. Unique SNPs identified in both reference genomes were kept and mapped on the Vicugna_pacos 2.0.2 genome. The effects of the no-call threshold ≥ 0.25, call frequency = 1 and average GC ≥ 0.7 were meaningful and identified 6756 SNPs of which 400 were unique and polymorphic (MAF ≥ 0.01). Assignment to alpaca chromosomes was possible for 292 SNPs. Likewise, 209 SNPs were localized in 202 alpaca gene loci and 29 of these share the same loci with the dromedary. Interestingly, 69 of 400 alpaca SNPs have 100% similarity with dromedary.

Reproduction in female South American domestic camelids

Alpacas and llamas are induced ovulators. They show marked reproductive seasonality in the Andean region, but under Northern Hemisphere conditions of feeding and management, they are non-seasonal breeders. Puberty is attained when they reach 50% of adult body weight. When they are not exposed to a male, females show successive waves of follicular maturation and atresia. Growth, maintenance and regression of a follicle each require an average of 4 and 6 days in alpacas and llamas, respectively. After sterile mating, progesterone concentrations in blood were increased from day 5, reached maximum concentrations on day 7-8, and declined rapidly at 9-10 days after mating. A fertile mating results in formation of a corpus luteum that remains functional throughout gestation. The duration of gestation is 340-346 days. Almost all fetuses were found to occupy the left uterine horn, even though ovulation occurs from both ovaries with equal frequency. Several methods of pregnancy diagnosis have been described. Mating is recommended within 15-20 days after parturition to obtain good fertility rates and one offspring per year. The factors that contribute to high rates of embryonic mortality are unknown. Reproductive technologies, such as AI, superovulation, embryo transfer and IVF, have not been used very extensively in these species but can be successfully applied.