South African Children Research Articles

Health-Related Quality of Life of Adolescent and Young Adult-Aged Childhood Cancer Survivors in a South African Cohort: A Pilot Study Using the Minneapolis-Manchester Quality of Life Instrument.

Purpose: We investigated the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of an adolescent and young adult (AYA)-aged South African childhood cancer survivor (CCS) cohort. Methods: Participants completed the Minneapolis-Manchester Quality of Life adolescent and adult forms. The overall Cronbach's alpha coefficients were 0.81 (adolescent form) and 0.92 (adult form). The scale-level content validity indexes were acceptable (0.88 and 0.89 for the adolescent and adult forms, respectively). The total domain and overall HRQoL scores were calculated. Results: Sixty-two survivors completed the adolescent form and 30 completed the adult form. The median age was 17.5 years (range 13-34 years), and the median time from diagnosis was 12 years (male:female ratio 1:1.2). Risk factors for poor physical functioning included age at study visit (p = 0.015), solid tumor diagnosis (p = 0.012), radiotherapy (p = 0.021), and surgery (p = 0.006). Six or more late effects impacted most domains negatively; severe late effects (p = 0.020) decreased physical functioning. Lower socioeconomic status was associated with poorer physical (p = 0.006) and cognitive (p = 0.047) functioning. The adult form cohort had poorer psychological (p = 0.014) and social functioning (p = 0.005) and body image (p = 0.016) than the adolescent form cohort. Conclusion: Older age, radiotherapy, surgery, solid tumor diagnosis, and the number and severity of late effects negatively influenced HRQoL in AYA-aged CCSs. A long-term follow-up (LTFU) risk stratification system should include HRQoL status to assist with holistic LTFU care.

Intakes from healthy and unhealthy food groups and obesity among 5- to 9-year-old South African children

The global pandemic of paediatric overweight and obesity, along with undernutrition among children in low-income countries pose challenges for future health. Unhealthy dietary intake among children is of great concern(1). The aim of this study was to determine the association between intakes from healthy and unhealthy food groups and adiposity among 5- to 9-year-old South African children (n = 920). Conventional dietary intake assessment methods are burdensome; therefore, a short unquantified food frequency questionnaire was developed based on the WHO Global school-based student health survey, which focused on healthy and unhealthy food groups. The new questionnaire includes four healthy food groups (fruits, vegetables, milk, meats) and six unhealthy food groups (hot sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), cold SSBs, cookies, candies, salty snacks, fast foods) with five different responses of frequency of intake per week. The food groups reflect foods generally eaten by South African school children. The questionnaire was completed by the parents. Weight and height were measured and WHO BMI z-score (BAZ) was calculated(2). Descriptive statistics were reported using median and interquartile range. Frequency of intakes from food groups were compared across tertiles of BAZ using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The correlation between frequency of intakes from different food groups, and between the food groups and BAZ was calculated. The children reported similar daily intakes from the milk (35.3%), cold SSBs (33%) and hot SSBs groups (27%). Fruit (14%) and vegetables (9.6%) were consumed daily by a small percentage of children, while animal source protein foods (meat, fish, poultry, eggs) were consumed daily by 39% of children. The most frequent daily consumed snacks were salty snacks, e.g. crisps (13.2%), candy (11.1%) and cookies (5.3%), while fast foods were consumed once per week by the largest proportion of children (60.7%). Based on the WHO BMI z-scores, 15.2% of children were overweight, 4.4% were obese and 3.8% were underweight. Children in the highest two tertile groups of BAZ had a higher median weekly frequency of SSB intake (5, IQR 1,7), compared to those in the lowest BAZ tertile (3, IQR 1,7). No other differences were found between frequency of food group intake across BAZ tertiles. There was a weak positive correlation between BAZ and the frequency of SSB intake (r = 0.08, = 0.015), as well as between frequency of milk intake and frequency of SSB intake (r = 0.13, P<0.001), but a weak negative correlation between the frequency of vegetable intake and frequency of SSB intake (r = −0.08, P = 0.01). In conclusion, low fruit and vegetable intakes, combined with regular SSB intakes are evident in this group of children. The frequency of SSB intake was positively associated with adiposity, and SSB intake apparently replaced vegetable intake, but not milk intake among the children.

Multi- and extensively drug resistant Escherichia coli isolated from South African children under 5 years old with diarrhoea

BackgroundGlobally, millions of children die as a result of diarrhoea and/or antimicrobial resistant infections. Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) are responsible for a substantial proportion of cases of diarrhoea in South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. Effective treatments (including the use of antimicrobials) are therefore essential. MethodologyE. coli isolated from children under the age of five were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the Vitek 2® compact automated system (bioMérieux Inc., France) and categorized as multidrug or extensively drug resistant (MDR or XDR). ResultsAlmost all isolates (164/166, 98.8 %) were categorized as MDR with 4.9 % (9/166) categorized as XDR. The majority of isolates (153/166, 92.2 %) were also phenotypically classified as extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producers. More than half of these isolates (78/153, 51.0 %) were subjected to PCR for genes associated with ESBL production. More than half (45/78, 57.7 %) of the isolates tested were PCR positive for at least one ESBL gene or gene group and 11.5 % (9/78) were positive for two ESBL genes or gene groups. DiscussionThere is a need to strengthen antimicrobial resistance surveillance in South Africa and improve infection prevention and control measures. There is also a need to review the current South African Treatment Guidelines as outlined by the South African Essential Drugs Programme.

Telephonic follow-up after day case pediatric surgery in an upper middle income country: A pilot study.

One third of South African children live in households with no employed adult. Telemedicine may save patients and the strained public health sector significant resources. We aimed to determine the safety and benefits of telephonic post-operative follow-up of patients who presented for day case surgery at CHBAH from 1 January-31 March 2023. A prospective descriptive study on patients undergoing day case surgery was performed. Healthy patients greater than 6years old whose caregivers spoke English and had access to a smartphone were included. Data on the total number of telephonic follow-ups, operative complications, need for in person review, satisfaction with telephonic follow-up, and savings in transport costs and time by avoiding in person follow-up were collected. A total of 38 telephonic follow-ups were performed. Six (15.8%) patients presented for in person review due to the detection of major complications (2, 5.3%), minor complications (2, 5.3%), and parental concern (2, 5.3%) during telephonic follow-up. All caregivers reported being satisfied with telephonic follow-up. Total savings in transport costs were R4452 (US $ 248.45). The majority of patients (29, 76.3%) had at least one unemployed parent. Seven caregivers (18.4%) avoided taking paid leave and 2 (5.3%) unpaid leave from work due to follow-up being performed telephonically. Innovation is necessary in order to expand access to safe, affordable, and timely care. In this selected group, telephonic follow-up was a safe, acceptable, and cost-effective intervention. The expansion of such a program has the potential for significant savings for patients and the healthcare system.

Socio-Economic-Driven Disparities in Chronic Illness and Disability Among the South African Children: Exploring Variations Within the Urban and Rural Areas

ABSTRACT: Existing literature on health inequalities often overlooks the nuanced dynamics, particularly among vulnerable children with chronic diseases and disabilities and fails to consider regional disparities within countries like South Africa. This paper asserts the necessity for a more granular analysis in South Africa, recognizing the varied health outcomes for children across different economic segments and geographical settings. Specifically, the health trajectories for children differ markedly between rural formal areas, regions under traditional authorities, formal urban areas, and informal urban settlements. Addressing the generalizations common in prior research, this study takes a precise, regionally focused approach to socio-economic-driven disparities in chronic illness or disability. It distinguishes between rural formal areas, traditional authority areas, formal urban areas, and informal urban areas, unveiling the intricate layers of health disparities. Using data from the National Income Dynamics Study, concentration indices, and the Oaxaca-Blinder Decomposition method, the paper analyzed health inequality trends from 2008 to 2017. The results uncover significant inequalities, with alarming trends, particularly among children with chronic illnesses and disabilities in traditional authority regions and informal urban environments. The paper's evidence shows that rural formal areas have experienced a decline in health disparities as opposed to the deepening divide in traditional authority-led regions. The urban analysis reveals a split: while formal urban settings often favour the wealthier, informal urban areas indicate a shift towards lower socioeconomic brackets. The decomposition analysis highlights the evolving socioeconomic elements influencing each region over time. These insights emphasize the urgent necessity for geographically tailored policy interventions. By understanding the distinct socioeconomic landscapes across various regions, we can formulate policies that resonate with each area's specific realities and challenges. Such targeted strategies are essential in reducing health inequalities and enhancing the life quality of children with chronic health conditions and disabilities, playing a critical role in South Africa's journey toward comprehensive health equity.

Preventing Stunting in South African Children Under 5: Evaluating the Combined Impacts of Maternal Characteristics and Low Socioeconomic Conditions

More than 140 million children under five suffered from stunting in 2020. This highlights the ongoing challenge of addressing childhood malnutrition globally. We utilized data from a nationally representative sample of children under five years of age (n = 14,151) who participated in five cycles of the South African National Income Dynamics Study (SA-NIDS) (2008–2017). We estimated the proportion of stunted children attributed to the mothers’ anthropometric characteristics and socioeconomic conditions. We also quantified the population-level burden of low-socioeconomic conditions on hunger/food insecurity among pregnant women (n = 22,814) who participated in the nine rounds of the South African General Household Surveys (GHS) (2008–2021). Results from weighted-multivariate logistic regression were incorporated into the population-level impacts of correlates of stunting and low-socioeconomic conditions. The prevalence of stunting declined from 25% in 2008 to 23% in 2017. Mothers’ anthropometric measures (underweight/height < 160 cm), marital status, low education, absence of medical insurance and low-socioeconomic conditions were all identified as the most influential risk factors for stunting. Their population-level impacts on stunting increased substantially from 34% (in 2008) to 65% (in 2017). Comprehensive strategies emphasizing enhanced food security, extended breastfeeding, appropriate nutrition, and access to adequate healthcare and education are urgently needed to reduce the burden of food insecurity low-socioeconomic, malnutrition, and its long-term consequences.

Experience on postmortem minimally invasive tissue sampling to ascertain the cause of death determination in South African children: A case for implementing as standard of care

Determining the death burden for prioritising public health interventions necessitates detailed data on the causal pathways to death. Postmortem minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS), incorporating histology, molecular and microbial culture diagnostics, enhances cause-of-death attribution, particularly for infectious deaths. MITS proves a valid alternative to full diagnostic autopsies, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In Soweto, South Africa (SA), the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) programme has delineated over 1 000 child and stillbirth deaths since 2017. This SA CHAMPS site supports advocating for the use of postmortem MITS as routine practice, for more granular insights into under-5 mortality causes. This knowledge is crucial for SA’s pursuit of Sustainable Development Goal 3.2, targeting reduced neonatal and under-5 mortality rates. This commentary explores the public health advantages and ethicolegal considerations surrounding implementing MITS as standard of care for stillbirths, neonatal and paediatric deaths in SA. Furthermore, based on the data from CHAMPS, we present three pragmatic algorithmic approaches to the wide array of testing options for cost-effectiveness and scalability of postmortem MITS in South African state facilities.

Randomized Trial to Improve Body Composition and Micronutrient Status Among South African Children

IntroductionPhysical activity (PA) promotion combined with multi-micronutrient supplementation (MMNS) among school-age children may reduce fat mass accrual and increase muscle mass through different mechanisms and so benefit child health. This study determined the efficacy of combined interventions on body composition among South African schoolchildren and determined if micronutrients mediate these effects. Study designLongitudinal cluster randomized controlled trial of children followed from 2019 to 2021. Statistical analyses carried form 2022-2023 Setting/participantsA total of 1304 children 6-12 years of age recruited from public schools in Gqeberha, South Africa. InterventionChildren were randomized by classes to either: (a) a physical activity group (PA); (b) a MMNS group; (c) a physical activity + multi-micronutrient supplementation group (PA + MMNS); and (d) a placebo control group. Main outcome measuresTrajectories of overall and truncal fat free mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) estimates in modeled at 9 and 21 months using latent growth curve models (LGCM). Changes in micronutrient concentrations at 9 months from baseline. ResultsAn increased FFM trajectory was found among children in the MMNS arm at 9 months (Beta 0.16, 95% CI = 0.12, 0.31). The PA and MMNS arms both had positive indirect effects on this trajectory at 9 months (Beta 0.66, 95% CI = 0.44, 0.88 and Beta 0.32 95% CI = 0.1 0.5, respectively) and similarly at 21 months when mediated by zinc concentration changes. A reduced FM trajectory was found among children in the PA promotion arm at 9 months when using this collection point as the referent intercept. This arm was inversely associated with the FM trajectory at 9 months when mediated by zinc changes. ConclusionsPA and MMNS promotion in school-based interventions directly contributed to reductions in FM and increased FFM among South African children and indirectly through changes in micronutrient status.

An unbalancing act: gender and parental division in childcare in South Africa

The South African Children’s Act, 2005 defines ‘care’ to include safeguarding all aspects of a child’s wellbeing. Despite this obligation falling equally on both parents, studies have shown that mothers in South Africa continue to take greater responsibility for childcare than fathers. Using the most recently available nationally representative quantitative data on physical and financial childcare, collected for the National Income Dynamics Study, this article presents a detailed overview of the involvement in childcare of men compared with women, and fathers compared with mothers. The article includes examining the gender and parental division in assistant childcare, investigating the role played by absent parents in regular physical and financial care, and analysing the gender division in household income of households in which children live.

Sleep habits and sleep hygiene practices of South African primary school-aged children: an exploratory study

Sleep habits and sleep hygiene practices of South African primary school-aged children: an exploratory study

Child exposure to organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides measured in urine, wristbands, and household dust and its implications for child health in South Africa: A panel study.

Children in agricultural areas are exposed to organophosphate (OP) and pyrethroid (PYR) insecticides. This explorative study investigated child exposure to OPs and PYRs, comparing temporal and spatial exposure variability within and among urine, wristbands, and dust samples. During spraying season 2018, 38 South African children in two agricultural areas (Grabouw/Hex River Valley) and settings (farm/village) participated in a seven-day study. Child urine and household dust samples were collected on days 1 and 7. Children and their guardians were wearing silicone wristbands for seven days. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) evaluated temporal agreements between repeated urine and dust samples, Spearman rank correlations (Rs) evaluated the correlations among matrices, and linear mixed-effect models investigated spatial exposure predictors. A risk assessment was performed using reverse dosimetry. Eighteen OPs/PYRs were targeted in urine, wristbands, and dust. Levels of chlorpyrifos in dust (ICC = 0.92) and diethylphosphate biomarker in urine (ICC = 0.42) showed strong and moderate temporal agreement between day 1 and day 7, respectively. Weak agreements were observed for all others. There was mostly a weak correlation among the three matrices (Rs = -0.12 to 0.35), except for chlorpyrifos in dust and its biomarker 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol in urine (Rs = 0.44). No differences in exposure levels between living locations were observed. However, 21% of the urine biomarker levels exceeded the health-risk threshold for OP exposure. Observed high short-term variability in exposure levels during spraying season highlights the need for repeated sampling. The weak correlation between the exposure matrices points to different environmental and behavioral exposure pathways. Exceeding risk thresholds for OP should be further investigated.

Association between prenatal exposure to indoor residual spraying insecticides and infection rates among South African children participating in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE)

In 2021, 53 countries conducted indoor residual spraying (IRS), the application of insecticides such as dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) or pyrethroids to the walls of homes to control malaria. Animal studies show that these insecticides can increase susceptibility to infections but only one human study was conducted in a population from an area where IRS is applied. The aim of the present study was thus to investigate whether maternal exposure to DDT, its breakdown product dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene (DDE) or pyrethroid insecticides is associated with symptoms of infection among children living in a region of South Africa were IRS is conducted annually. As part of the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE) we measured maternal serum concentrations of DDT and DDE, and urinary concentrations of four pyrethroid metabolites in peripartum samples. Poisson regression models with robust variance estimates were used to investigate associations with the rates of infection symptoms between ages 3.5–5 years among 629 children as assessed based on caregiver interviews. Multiple pyrethroid metabolites were associated with infection symptoms. For instance, cis-DBCA was associated with increased rates of ear infection (Incidence Rate Ratio for a 10-fold increase (IRR10) = 1.4; 95 % Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.0, 2.1) and persistent diarrhea (IRR10 = 2.1; 95 % CI = 1.2, 3.9), trans-DCCA was associated with increased rates of colds in children (IRR10 = 1.3; 95 % CI = 1.0, 1.6) and persistent fever (IRS10 = 1.4; 95 % CI = 1.0, 2.0), and 3-PBA was associated with increased rates of persistent fever (IRR10 = 1.8; 95 % CI = 1.0, 3.0). We found limited evidence of association between maternal DDE and DDT serum concentrations and infection symptoms. Results suggest that prenatal exposure to pyrethroid insecticides may be associated with infections among children from an area where IRS is conducted.

Using vignettes to understand the social-emotional experiences of three-year-olds in diverse language contexts

In this article, we report on the educational experiences of young Afrikaans mother tongue South African children who are exposed to multilingual learning environments during their preschool years. We carried out phenomenological research using a vignette research design that provided observational, co-experiential data of the lived experiences of three-year-old boys as they engaged with formal and informal learning. We controlled vignette data that had been collected through observations, written teacher validation, and face-to-face interviews against existing literature to provide in-depth insights into the participants' different experiences of and within their learning environments. Findings indicate specific areas in which young children may need additional support in multilingual learning environments, in terms of 1) social-emotional security experienced in the learning environment, 2) intentional development of empathy for peers, 3) independence and initiative taking in informal settings, and 4) interactive communication. Although we focused on a South African context, these findings may inform future interventions to support children in multilingual language environments in their early years.

Rural Early Childhood Educators’ Perception of Music-Based Pedagogy in Teaching Communication Skills to Children

Early childhood care and Education is an important phase for impacting communication skills to children for building a strong sense of identity and belonging. The South African National Curriculum Framework (NCF) regards communication skills as one of the six early learning and development areas considered for Early Childhood and Education (ECCE). Caps Grade R admonishes educators to support learners with interpersonal Communication Skills and to develop their Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency by engaging them in activities that focus on rhymes. Thus, South African children need skillful educators to employ developmental implementation strategies to support their acquisition of these skills. Research shows that subjects like Life Skills, English Language, Civic Education, and Mathematics are successfully implemented using music-based pedagogy. However, because ECCE is relatively new in South Africa, there is no strong structure to support the ECCE/ECD (Early Childhood Development) educators in employing music-based pedagogies to teach communication skills to the children. This article focuses on the rural ECD/ECCE educators’ perception and experiences in employing music-based pedagogy to support the children’s acquisition of communication skills. The study was conducted at two ECD/ECCE centres in Northern Cape province, South Africa.This is participatory visual research where Six ECD/ECCE Educators were engaged in semi-structured interviews and reflective activities on how they facilitate communication skills using music. The study was informed by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. The educators supported music-based pedagogy, however, inadequate musical training, non-availability of musical resources, and non-inclusion of music as an independent subject in the CAPS/NRF documents are their constraints. In their pre-service teacher education programs, almost all South African institutions include creative arts training; the course is typically taught over one semester, and music is merely one of the various creative arts subfields. As a result, the pre-service teachers lack the necessary musical background to implement music-based instruction. In conclusion, the study recommends musical intervention training to empower ECD/ECCE educators. Keywords: Early Childhood Development, Rural Context, Music-Based Pedagogy Communication Skills.

Using the Strategy Instructions Approach (SIA) in Teaching Reading Comprehension: A Case Study Schools in the Amathole East District South in Africa

This study sought to explore the effectiveness of using the Strategy Instructions Approach (SIA) to teach South African children reading comprehension. The majority of language teachers, especially those who teach English as a first or second language, were found to be lacking in the skills needed to impart reading comprehension effectively to their learners. Grade 8 learners were taught reading comprehension using SIA which was basically from the curriculum and assessment policy statement (CAPS) materials. A control group of 60 learners and an experimental group of 60 learners (sampled from three schools in Amathole East District in South Africa) were used to determine the effectiveness of SIA when compared to the traditional teaching approaches used by teachers to teach reading comprehension. The outcomes demonstrated that SIA enhanced performance in reading comprehension. The study recommends that schools especially, those in rural areas should have more reading resources and activities, longer hours on the school timetable for teaching reading comprehension, and higher institutions should train teachers to use SIA. Keywords: Strategy Instructions Approach (SIA), Reading Comprehension, Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), Control Group, Experimental Group

Humour as Self-Deprecation in Born a Crime: Stories from South African Childhood by Trevor Noah

Born a Crime: Stories from South African Childhood is a captivating memoir penned by a globally acclaimed South African comedian, Trevor Noah, delving into the hardships he and those around him endured during the oppressive Apartheid-era government and colonialism. This article analyzes instances where the comedian author employs a self-deprecating humour style to add depth to his narrative of stories from South African childhood. To conduct this analysis, we adopt cognitive and incongruity theoretical frameworks. Our methodology is qualitative, involving the analysis of selected texts to present thematic data. The findings reveal that the author’s transparency about his life, from the title of the book to his relationships with others, delves into painful details of his childhood experiences during the traumatic history of the nation in which there was oppression. However, he presents these experiences with self- deprecating humour that simultaneously entertains and educates readers about the socioeconomic issues prevalent in South Africa at the time. Noah's storytelling strategy can be understood within the context of comedians' freedom to explore sensitive matters about themselves to entertain their audience.

Results From South Africa's 2022 Healthy Active Kids' Report Card on Physical Activity, Body Composition Proxies, and Nutritional Status in Children and Adolescents.

Physical activity (PA) and nutrition in children have an impact on overall physical and mental well-being, cognitive, and social development. This study aims to report on the best current available evidence on PA, body composition proxies, and nutritional status of South African children and adolescents, based on the published findings between 2018 and 2022, which comprise the 2022 Healthy Active Kids South Africa Report Card. A comprehensive literature search of online databases, along with hand searching and a gray literature search, was conducted based on PA, body composition proxies, and nutrition indicators defined, in part, by the Active Healthy Kids Global Alliance. Compared with the 2018 report card, there was an improvement in the majority of PA indicators which include overall PA (B-), active transportation (B-), physical fitness (B-), and government policy and programs (C). Body composition proxies and most of the nutrition indicators remained unchanged. The indicators that regressed from 2018 to 2022 included community and environmental influences (D), as well as participation in organized sport (D-). Despite the apparent improvement in overall PA levels in children and adolescents, there is a lack of tangible evidence of actual implementation of policies and programs. There was also a lack of nationally representative data for most indicators. Overall, there is a need to identify intersectoral, equitable approaches for promoting PA and healthy eating in South African children and adolescents and ongoing monitoring and surveillance.

A superfluous concept? The inherent jurisdiction of the South African superior courts as upper guardians of children

This article examines the relationship between the role of the superior courts as upper guardians of minors and the constitutionally enshrined right of South African children to have their best interests considered paramount in any matter concerning them. The powerful procedural role of the superior courts in this regard is not subject to review or appeal, enabling the courts to intervene of their own accord on behalf of and to protect all children in their jurisdiction. The article examines whether this upper guardianship role has become superfluous and outdated in light of the constitutional requirement that courts consider the paramountcy of the child’s best interests as an independent right. The High Court’s upper guardianship role provides a more flexible legal basis for judicial intervention, as the case law reviewed in this article indicates. It is also supported by s 173 of the Constitution, which refers to the inherent powers of courts to protect and regulate their own process and to develop the common law, and by s 45(4) of the Children’s Act. Furthermore, the superior courts, as courts of record, enable the development of a system of precedent-based child law, providing judicial reasons for all decisions and justifying the retention of the common-law inherent jurisdiction of the High Court as the upper guardian of children. We conclude that there is a residual role for the continued existence of the powers of the superior courts to act as upper guardians of the children within their jurisdiction, the constitutional best-interests standard notwithstanding.

Cybersecurity education for South African school children through the action Cybercrime Prevention Programme: A systematic literature review

Cybertechnologies have become so important to human daily engagements that society can hardly do anything outside these ubiquitous technologies. These technologies have a great impact on the economy, as well as the social well-being of citizens in developed and third world countries. The dependence on digital technologies is useful in every sector of society. The consistent call for the adoption of digital technologies in education has seen different governments in advanced and developing nations of the world introducing the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) at the different facets of education. This introduction of ICT has brought in the use of the Internet in education which in turn has exposed the learners to the various threats that come with exposure to the Internet or cybertechnology. The internet is believed to have played a prominent role in facilitating the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) in the different sectors of the world economy, most especially education. However, cybertechnology has brought a new dimension of threats ranging from cyber-bullying, identity theft, scamming, advanced fee fraud, and so many other dangers to humans’ daily existence. None of the citizens in the developed and developing nations of the world is immune from these crimes committed in cyberspace; therefore, there is a need to introduce school children to cybersecurity education as early as possible. It is in light of the foregoing that this systematic review proposes the Action Cybercrime Prevention Programme to equip school children with knowledge and skills that would minimise their exposure to dangers inherent in the use of information and communication technology (ICT) and the Internet for education and social purposes. This systematic review discusses the intergenerational effects of the proposed Action Cybercrime Prevention Programme on young learners to educate their parents or grandparents from falling victim to cybercrimes.

Long-term associations between early attachment and parenting and adolescent susceptibility to post-traumatic distress in a South African high-risk sample.

It has been proposed that children and young people living in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are not only exposed more frequently to trauma but also have a higher likelihood of encountering traumas of greater severity than those living in high-income countries (HICs). This may lead to higher rates of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). However, developmental pathways to risk or resilience after trauma exposure in LMICs are underresearched. We examined early parenting and attachment as potentially important formative factors for later stress reactivity in a longitudinal cohort of South African children (N = 449). Parenting and attachment were assessed at child age 18 months, and interpersonal trauma exposure, PTSS and parenting stress were measured at 13 years (N = 333; core sample with data on all measures: N = 213). Following a vulnerability-stress approach, separate regression models were run to investigate whether parent-child attachment at 18 months, parental sensitivity and intrusiveness during play at 12 months, and current parenting stress at 13 years, interacted with adolescents' extent of interpersonal trauma exposure to predict their PTSS levels at 13 years. We found no predictive effects of either early attachment or current parenting stress in relation to child PTSS. There was some evidence for predictive influences of parental early intrusiveness and sensitivity on adolescent outcomes, though associations were unexpectedly positive for the latter. No interaction effects supporting a vulnerability-stress model were found. Overall, we found limited evidence that elements of the early parent-child environment predict child risk/resilience to trauma in LMIC children. Future studies should include more frequent assessments of relevant constructs to capture changes over time and consider further what comprises adaptive parenting in high-risk contexts.