Source Routing Research Articles

Performance Evaluation of Reactive Routing Protocols in MANETs in Association with TCP Newreno

We inspect the performance of TCP NewReno protocol for data transfer in Mobile Ad hoc networks (MANETs). Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocols and AdHoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) are standard reactive routing protocols widely used in MANETs. In addition we also have to consider Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) as essential for MANETs since it is one of the widely used internet protocol for dependable data transmission. TCP has its variants namely TCP Reno, TCP NewReno , TCP Vegas and TCP SACK. In this paper we are evaluating the performance of DSR and AODV in association with TCP Newreno with respect to various parameters such as Average throughput, instant throughput, residual energy, packet delivery ratio. The ns-2 network simulator was used for simulation.

Load Balancing Dynamic Source Routing Protocol Based on Multi-Path Routing

A HWMP improved routing protocol (HWMMRP) is proposed in this paper. The protocol adopts the integrated link state routing criterion algorithm LCCM providing small overhead, with factors such as bandwidth, queue length and noise interference fully considered. In order to solve the problem of the tree routing mechanism being easily congested at the root node, a multi-path multi-gateway shunting mechanism is applied. A multipath routing mechanism is also incorporated in the reactive routing mode. Both the new criteria and the protocol are simulated in the NS-2 environment, and are compared with comparable protocols. The experimental results show that our protocol can effectively avoid node congestion, and provides a better dynamic load balancing capability as well as a better performance than the standard HWMP and AODV protocols.

KeySFC: Traffic steering using strict source routing for dynamic and efficient network orchestration

Current service function chaining (SFC) solutions are cumbersome adaptations of classic routing mechanisms, which lack flexibility and agility to cope with new dynamic services required by network functions virtualization (NFV). These SFC solutions require modification of forwarding tables in both physical and virtual elements in the path when updating a chain. In addition, current SFC implementations restrict traffic engineering to sub-optimal resource allocation solutions, because limited switch table sizes prevent the consideration of all possible traffic paths. Moreover, overlay chaining decisions are usually decoupled from the actual underlay routing of packets across service functions. To tackle these issues, we propose KeySFC, a traffic steering scheme that uses software-defined networking (SDN) and strict source routing. KeySFC exploits the fabric network concept in data center networks (DCNs) in two ways: (i) edge software switches classify, encapsulate, forward, and decapsulate flows with SFC labels; and (ii) core tableless switches forward packets based on simple modulo operations over these labels. Thus, the modification of a small number of flow entries in edge elements allows changing of SFC labels and effectively stitching paths via SDN. An OpenStack-based prototype demonstrates that the traffic steering scheme provided by KeySFC has the potential to enable efficient traffic engineering and to provide agile path migration per SFC segment.

Travel times to hospitals in Australia

Travel time to hospital is a key measure of health service accessibility, and impacts patients’ experiences of care and health outcomes. Methods used to estimate travel time vary across studies. In Australia the smallest geographical areas defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics for the release of population counts are mesh blocks (MBs) and the smallest geographical areas for the release of health-related statistics are statistical areas level 2 (SA2). SA2s are built up from whole MBs. This project used the Open Source Routing Machine (OSRM) HTTP server to compute estimated travel times between the centroid of each inhabited MB and each hospital in Australia, as well as the shortest travel times between MBs and any hospital. By computing population-weighted averages across MBs, the average travel times to hospitals and the shortest travel time to any hospital were estimated for each SA2. This dataset will promote consistency across studies investigating geographic influences on health care in Australia, and the methods are applicable to generating similar datasets for other countries.

Performance Analysis of Ad-Hoc Routing Protocol for Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network (VANET)

Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET) are an emerging technology with vehicle. As a subset of Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) application, VANET is considered to be a new phase of technology to the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS). VANET is a technology Using VANET vehicles can become aware of the dynamic behavior of other vehicles regardless of the driver's ability. In addition, infrastructure can obtain situational awareness at various levels of detail to manage traffic and potentially send emergency services. When traffic jam occurred in pick hour, vehicle in that area should be able to give a way to emergency services such as ambulance. Such traffic happened every day in Jakarta especially on weekdays. This research focused on designing the traffic condition and analyzing the routing protocol for VANET for Jakarta smart cities. Before implementing VANET in Jakarta, simulation using NS2 was conducted with two environment scenes. The first environment scene was the vehicle move one by one on each intersection. The second environment scene was the vehicle move in the opposite direction. The number of mobile nodes used in the environment scene as vehicle and infrastructure were 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, and 350. we set 10 nodes as infrastructures for all number of mobile nodes used in the simulation and the remaining nodes as vehicles. We used more nodes as vehicle because the number of vehicles in the Jakarta was higher than the number of infrastructures. The network area used in this simulation was 2000x2000. We used constant bit rate (CBR), two ray ground propagation and omni antenna to simulate the environment scenes. The routing protocols used in this research were Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), and Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV). The result of this research showed that AODV achieved the highest throughput and the best packet delivery ratio. The lowest end-to-end delay was achieved by DSDV. Accordingly, simulation result showed that AODV has the best performance and preferable routing protocol of VANET for Jakarta environments.

Performance Comparison of the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol and The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad hoc Networks

Performance Comparison of the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol and The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad hoc Networks

Video Streaming in Urban Vehicular Environments: Junction-Aware Multipath Approach

In multipath video streaming transmission, the selection of the best vehicle for video packet forwarding considering the junction area is a challenging task due to the several diversions in the junction area. The vehicles in the junction area change direction based on the different diversions, which lead to video packet drop. In the existing works, the explicit consideration of different positions in the junction areas has not been considered for forwarding vehicle selection. To address the aforementioned challenges, a Junction-Aware vehicle selection for Multipath Video Streaming (JA-MVS) scheme has been proposed. The JA-MVS scheme considers three different cases in the junction area including the vehicle after the junction, before the junction and inside the junction area, with an evaluation of the vehicle signal strength based on the signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR), which is based on the multipath data forwarding concept using greedy-based geographic routing. The performance of the proposed scheme is evaluated based on the Packet Loss Ratio (PLR), Structural Similarity Index (SSIM) and End-to-End Delay (E2ED) metrics. The JA-MVS is compared against two baseline schemes, Junction-Based Multipath Source Routing (JMSR) and the Adaptive Multipath geographic routing for Video Transmission (AMVT), in urban Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETs).

Highly Anonymous Mobility-Tolerant Location-Based Onion Routing for VANETs

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) have received considerable attention in recent years. Like any other network, privacy and anonymity are a requirement in VANETs. Classic anonymous routing protocols such as onion routing algorithm are fragile in mobile networks due to frequent link breaks. In this article, we propose a novel onion-based anonymous routing protocol for highly mobile vehicular networks. It introduces the concept of location-based dynamic relay groups. In this concept, vehicles dynamically form groups around specific locations to act as cryptographic onion relays. The proposed protocol satisfies source anonymity, destination anonymity, and route anonymity features and is very scalable. Employment of pseudo-IDs further helps in keeping the real identity of vehicles anonymous. The proposed protocol can modify the chain structure on the fly and make it longer to maintain source/destination location anonymity or cut it short to maintain performance. The extensive simulations conducted based on the SUMO traffic simulator showed that the proposed protocol significantly outperforms the naive onion routing protocol in terms of delivery ratio, delay and number of retransmissions.

An extensive validation of a SIR epidemic model to study the propagation of jamming attacks against IoT wireless networks

This paper describes the utilization of an epidemic approach to study the propagation of jamming attacks, which can affect to different communication layers of all nodes in a variety of Internet of Things (IoT) wireless networks, regardless of the complexity and computing power of the devices. The jamming term considers both the more classical approach of interfering signals focusing on the physical level of the systems, and the cybersecurity approach that includes the attacks generated in upper layers like Medium Access Control (MAC), producing the same effect on the communication channel. In order to study the accuracy of the proposed epidemic model to estimate the propagation of jamming attacks, this paper uses the results of public simulations and experiments. It is of special interest the data obtained from experiments based on protocols such as Multi-Parent Hierarchical Protocol (MPH), Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV), and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), working over the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Then, using the formulation of the deterministic epidemiological model Susceptible–Infected–Recovered (SIR), together the abovementioned simulation, it has been seen that the proposed epidemic model could be used to estimate in that kind of IoT networks, the impact of the jamming attack in terms of attack severity and attack persistence.

Scalable Downward Routing for Wireless Sensor Networks Actuation

In this paper, we study the downward routing for network control/actuation in large-scale and heterogeneous wireless sensor networks (WSNs). We propose the opportunistic source routing (OSR), a scalable and reliable downward routing protocol for WSNs. OSR introduces opportunistic routing into traditional source routing based on the parent set of a node’s upward routing in data collection, significantly addressing the drastic link dynamics in low-power and lossy WSNs. We devise a novel adaptive Bloom filter mechanism to effectively and efficiently encode the downward source-route in OSR, which enables a significant reduction of the length of source-route field in the packet header. OSR is scalable to very large-size WSN deployments, since each resource-constrained node in the network stores only the set of its direct children. We present an analytical scalability model and evaluate the performance of OSR via both the simulations and real-world testbed experiments, in comparison with the standard RPL (both storing mode and non-storing mode), ORPL, and the representative dissemination protocol Drip. Our results show that the OSR significantly outperforms RPL and ORPL in scalability and reliability. OSR also achieves significantly better energy efficiency compared with TinyRPL and Drip which are based on the same TinyOS platform as OSR implementation.

Landscape applications of rainwater resources in urban green space: A case study of green space reconstruction along Riverside Street in Suzhou

The environmental problems exposed by the process of urbanization have become increasingly serious. At present, China has realized that rainwater is an important and valuable resource. Many cities have successively carried out the mode of rainwater resource utilization.This paper attempts to explore the design of rainwater management into landscape design, transforming from a single engineering technology level to a sustainable ecological level. From the source control, route transmission, terminal storage and storage, the three systems summarize the design of rainwater resources landscape application. Taking urban green space as the research object, and taking the reconstruction of the riverside green space in Suzhou as an example, the advantages and existing problems are analyzed. The feasibility of rainwater management is qualitatively analyzed and the rainwater runoff is quantitatively analyzed. The two measures of surface improvement and rainwater storage are used to explain how to integrate these design methods into specific cases, aiming for the future. Rainwater management in urban green space provides successful experience of others to go by.

Pengaruh Penerapan Algoritma Clustering COEEC Terhadap Kinerja Protokol Routing DSR di Jaringan MANET

MANET can be used as an alternative communication solution because it is mobile, meaning that it does not have a fixed infrastructure. MANET implementation can use routing protocols, one example of which is Dynamic Source Routing (DSR). DSR routing protocol works when there is a request for sending packets from the source node to the destination node using two main mechanisms namely, route discovery and route maintenance. Route discovery occurs when the process of sending data from the source node to the destination node by performing a flooding mechanism to the neighboring node. If there is an excessive flooding mechanism, it can cause an increase in routing overhead on the DSR routing protocol. So to overcome these problems clustering is done by utilizing the Overhead Energy Efficient Cluster (COEEC) algorithm on the DSR routing protocol. The results of the addition of clusters in the DSR routing protocol with the COEEC algorithm can increase throughput performance by 43% and 31%, then an increase in the average end to end delay of 0.005% and 0.01%, then the packet delivery ratio parameter increases

Utilization of Energy Consumption Metric to Detect Black Hole Attacker in DSR Routing Protocol

A Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a self-organized system comprised of multiple mobile wireless nodes. They do not require the existing network infrastructure. Autonomous telescopes can change freely and inadvertently in a network that can establish a dynamic network temporarily, and these networks can often change their appearance. Due to the openness in network topology and the absence of centralized administration in management, MANET is vulnerable to attacks from malicious nodes. Therefore, security is a major issue in MANET, which drastically reduces network performance. Several trust parameters such as packet delivery ratio, packet dropping ratio, etc are used for detecting the malicious node attack in MANET. Among these, this paper uses the energy as the trust parameter for detecting the malicious node. The energy reduction ratio differs from the normal node and attacker node in MANET. Hence, the main aim of this paper is to find the Normal Energy Reduction Ratio (NERR) and Attacker Energy Reduction Ratio (AERR). These two values are used for differentiating the normal node and attacker node in MANET. For routing, this paper uses the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) Protocol.

Improving the Network Performance using MP-OLSR Protocol for Wireless Ad Hoc Network (MANET)

MP-OLSR is the abbreviation of Multipath (Optimized Link source Routing) Protocol which is also known as hybrid protocol, that helps to increase the path in OLSR which clearly works on “proactive routing protocol” specifically developed for Ad Hoc Networks. Wireless Ah Hoc Networks are one among the emerging technology with many operations. This network has some uniquecharacteristics like shared co-operation, dynamic topology and wireless medium.MP-OLSR protocol has the potential to achieve dynamic exchange of data without relying on one base station or a backbone wired network and it is also capable of handling the intermittent exchange of data to manage the topology information for the network also it maintains the design of on-demand routing table and the packets will be forwarded to multiple paths. Here, we propose an idea for enhancing the Multipath-OLSR by using Clustering Algorithm which helps to avoid link failure and recovering the route and also routing protocol to reduce traffic delay and overhead of network that eventually increases the throughput and delivery ratio of a packet.

Secured and Efficient Data Transmission in Manets Against Malicious Attack using DSR Routing and BCS Clustering with Hybrid AES-ECC Cryptanalysis

Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring network of movable nodes linked by wireless creating a random topology. The nodes are free to move randomly. Thus, the networks wireless topology may be haphazard and may alter rapidly. The efficient route is established using Dynamic source routing (DSR) Routing Protocol. The Binary crow search (BCS) algorithm is used for clustering of sensor nodes and maintaining load balancing in an efficient way. Efficient black hole detection using Malicious Node Detection Mechanism-TX/RX (MNS-TX/RX) with optimized routing algorithm is implemented in a secure environment by using Advanced Hybrid Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) cryptanalysis and Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems. Thus “DSR-BCS-HAES-EEC-MANETs” algorithm has precisely detected the black hole node and finds the proper solution for transmitting data for maintaining lifetime and Load- balancing by analyzing performance such as Through-put, routing overhead, packet delivery ratio(PDR), drop, delay and energy consumption in a secure environment.

Transmission dynamics of HIV-1 subtype B strains in Indonesia

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) represent a major public health concern in Indonesia. Although circulating recombinant form (CRF) 01_AE is a predominant subtype in Indonesia, HIV-1 subtype B (HIV-1B) is also widely prevalent. However, the viral genetic evolution, spatial origins, and patterns of transmission of HIV-1B in Indonesia remain unclear. In the present study, we described the evolutionary characteristics and spatial-temporal transmission networks of HIV-1B in Indonesia. To elucidate the epidemiological link between HIV-1B epidemics in Indonesia and those in the remainder of the world, we conducted phylogenetic analyses of HIV-1B strains in Indonesia. Based on the results obtained, at least three epidemic clades [the Indonesia, United States (US), and China clades] of HIV-1B were found to be prevalent in Indonesia. In order to identify the potential source and transmission route of Indonesian HIV-1B strains, we performed Bayesian analyses and constructed Maximum clade credibility trees of each clade. Although some HIV-1B strains in Indonesia were introduced from Thailand, the prevalent HIV-1B strains appeared to have been directly introduced from Europe or America. Indonesian HIV-1B may have spread via the main dispersal of pandemic HIV-1B strains via the US from the Caribbean region rather than being directly introduced from Africa.

On Table Resource Virtualization and Network Slicing in Programmable Data Plane

Recently, the advances on programmable data plane (PDP) promote the studies on the network virtualization in a PDP-based substrate network (SNT). In this paper, we address the table resource virtualization and network slicing in PDP-based SNTs. We first leverage the idea of “Big-Switch” to design an effective table resource virtualization scheme in which the flow tables of a virtual switch (V-SW) can be installed in multiple adjacent substrate switches (S-SWs) according to their table sizes, while the feasible table size(s) on each S-SW are determined based on the global information of the SNT. By doing so, we can regulate the flow tables in the S-SWs in a more organized way to minimize memory fragmentation. Next, we address the network slicing based on the virtualization scheme, and come up with a three-layer VNE problem. To the best of our knowledge, such a VNE problem has not been studied before and the existing algorithms designed for traditional two-layer VNE problems can hardly solve it. We formulate an integer linear programming (ILP) model to solve the VNE problem exactly, and also design a time-efficient heuristic that can provide near-optimal solutions. Finally, we implement the heuristic in TPVX, which is a network hypervisor based on protocol-oblivious forwarding (POF), and also improve its performance by introducing source routing. The new TPVX is experimentally demonstrated in a real network testbed, and the results verify that our proposal maintains the additional latency caused by the three-layer VNE well and would not degrade the network services in virtual networks (VNTs).

A high energy storage supercapacitor based on nanoporous activated carbon electrode made from Argan shells with excellent ion transport in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes

Abstract A high-performance supercapacitor electrode was obtained from waste biomass, Argan shells. This electrode was fabricated using a simple activation technique; demonstrating an industry-friendly process, which is capable of having precise control over pore size distribution of the activated carbon derived from a natural resource. The obtained samples exhibited different pore size distributions, based on different activating agents and different activation routes used in the process. Two distinctly different pore size distributions were obtained from a single source and same synthesis routes, only by exploiting the size differences of the activating agents, which are potassium (KOH) and sodium (NaOH) ions respectively. This process enabled a significant enhancement of specific energy, with no or very negligible change in specific power. Thanks to the fact that there was almost no loss in ion diffusion properties within the porous network of the electrodes even after a change in the electrolytes, to the more viscous ionic liquid (Ethyl-Methyl Imidazolium Tetrafluoroborate), from comparatively less viscous aqueous and organic-based electrolytes. This size-controlled activation enabled us obtaining appropriate pore size distribution, which is a combination of a large number of micropores and a sufficient number of mesopores. This provided a very high specific surface area of 2251 m2/g with a total pore volume of 1.04 cm3/g. Very high specific capacitance of ∼179 F/g in aqueous electrolyte (0.5 M K2SO4) was obtained. The excellent porosity resulted in very high specific energy of ∼65 Wh/kg and high specific power of ∼2 kW/kg in ionic liquid electrolyte for 3.5 V operating voltage.

NS2 Based Performance Comparison Study between DSR and AODV Protocols

Mobile AD-HOC Network (MANETs) are useful when no traditional communication infrastructure exists, and have applications in military and other fields; MANET is a set of nodes capable of communicating with each other irrespective of infrastructure or centralized management. The mobility of system nodes leads them to be arranged and designed automatically. In addition, wireless networks have received extensive attention in the fields of communication systems owing to their prospective applications in different fields such as military, industrial and private area networks. Moreover, wireless networks are easy to install, inexpensive, reliable, and do not need a fixed infrastructure, unlike the wired networks. In the MANETs, routing protocols play an essential role to discover the ways between the source and the destination. Generally, an appointed routing protocol system aims to address the difficulties of the progressively evolving topologies. It is possible to divide MANET routing protocols into three kinds: proactive, receptive and hybrid. In this report, routing protocol topology such as queue size and a number of nodes was altered and the efficiency metrics of two reactive routing protocols such as Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector AODV and Dynamic Source Routing DSR were contrasted in terms of average end-to-end delay, average throughput and packet delivery ratio.

Source tracking on a dairy farm reveals a high occurrence of subclinical mastitis due to hypervirulent Listeria monocytogenes clonal complexes.

An extensive source investigation was conducted on a dairy farm with neurolisteriosis and subclinical mastitis cases to identify infection source and potential transmission routes of Listeria monocytogenes. A total of 36 L.monocytogenes isolates were obtained from animal clinical cases (neurolisteriosis and udder infection) and the farm environment (silage, faeces, water). Isolates were typed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Their virulence potential was assessed using the gentamicin protection assay and WGS-based identification of virulence genes. PFGE and WGS revealed a high genetic diversity of L.monocytogenes. An epidemiological link was confirmed for isolates from (i) several subclinical mastitis cases, (ii) silage and subclinical mastitis cases and (iii) different water sources. The neurolisteriosis isolate belonged to clonal complex (CC) 1, but infection source was not identified. A high occurrence (9/47 cows; 19·1%) of subclinical mastitis was observed with isolates belonging to CC2, CC4 and CC11. The dairy farm environment was contaminated with diverse L.monocytogenes strains, including genotypes associated with human disease. Several isolates harboured genetic determinants associated with increased infectious potential in humans. Results suggest that subclinical listerial mastitis should not be neglected as a potential source of milk contamination. The presence of hypervirulent CCs in subclinical mastitis cases calls for the implementation of improved mastitis detection.