Energy Source For Transport Research Articles

CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOETHANOL AND BIODIESEL MARKET IN UKRAINE

Wide use of motor biofuels, primarily advanced ones, is one of the effective ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in transport, a sector that is difficult to decarbonize. The European Green Deal, adopted by the EU at the end of 2019, aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% in 2030 compared to 1990 and to achieve climate neutrality in Europe by 2050. At the same time, about a third of the intermediate goal of 2030 falls specifically to the transport sector. As part of implementing the European Green Deal, it is planned to raise the share of renewable energy sources in transport from the current more than 10% to 24% in 2030. Ukraine as a potential member of the EU will join the implementation of the European Green Deal in the future. Therefore, now it is already necessary to be actively engaged in the decarbonization of transport as an important component of green transition activities. The national renewable energy action plan until 2020 had set the goal of reaching 10% of renewable sources in energy consumption in transport, while in reality this figure came to only 2.47% in 2020. Obviously, this sector of Ukraine’s bioenergy needs special attention and efforts for its further development, and the promising direction is increasing production and consumption of liquid motor biofuels. The purpose of the work is to elaborate a basic scenario for the development of the biodiesel and bioethanol market in Ukraine detailing individual types of biofuel. The forecasting carried out in this study is founded on the basic approaches and assumptions laid down in the Roadmap for bioenergy development in Ukraine until 2050 elaborated by the Bioenergy Association of Ukraine in 2020. Main global trends in the biofuels sector have been also taken into account. A comprehensive assessment of the current and prospective bioenergy potential in Ukraine was carried out in terms of potential types of feedstock for obtaining liquid biofuels. Prospective volumes of production and internal consumption of motor biofuels were specified breaking down the data by biofuels type (biodiesel, bioethanol) and generation (first and second generation). A technical and economic assessment of the production of various types of motor biofuels for Ukraine’s conditions was performed. The obtained results show that the production of bioethanol from corn grain and biodiesel from used cooking oil is feasible today. In order to achieve profitable production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic feedstock, as well as biodiesel from rapeseed, it is necessary to find ways to reduce capital and operating costs of such plants or introduce target state support.

STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSITION OF ROAD TRANSPORT TO CLEAN ENERGY SOURCES

Road transport is one of the leading sources of air pollution and climate change. The transition to clean energy sources is a key task to mitigate the impact of transport on the environment. This article is based on the research of the Department of Management of the National Transport University in the field of road transport ecology. The article discusses various strategies for the transition of road transport to clean energy sources: the development of electric vehicles and other vehicles powered by alternative energy sources, the implementation of infrastructure for charging electric vehicles, the development of clean public transport, and the promotion of the use of alternative modes of transport. The transition to clean energy sources for road transport is a complex task that requires the efforts of all stakeholders. However, this task is necessary to protect the environment and ensure sustainable development.

Research into the Regenerative Braking of an Electric Car in Urban Driving

As the use of fossil energy sources in transport declines, new technologies, e.g., electric vehicles, are being introduced. One of the advantages of electric vehicles in urban driving is the possibility to charge their batteries with regenerative energy during braking. For this reason, electric cars usually have a longer range per charge in urban driving than in non-urban driving. This research experimentally examined the regenerative braking of a converted Renault Clio electric car at different regenerative braking settings in the range of 0–100%. An original research methodology was developed for road tests in urban driving. The driving cycle included aggressive driving with rapid acceleration and braking. The road test was conducted in second and third gears, which are the usual gears for driving an electric car in a city. The highest regenerative braking efficiencies were achieved at a 100% setting, which in some replications reached 24% of the total electrical energy consumed; however, the 100% setting was too high from the perspective of comfortable driving of the electric car and contributed to a too significant increase in the braking force at the initial stages of braking.

Real-Time Continuous Monitoring of Fuel Cell Ionomer Degradation with Electrochemical Inline Micro Sensor Arrays

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are the preferred energy source for green transportation over CO2 emitting engines. In Nafion®-based PEMFCs, the radical attack causes polymer chain scission and irreversible reaction. It results in the global and local thinning of the ionomer, followed by producing fluorinated and sulfated degradation materials into reactant outlet streams. Synchronous fluorinated and sulfated degradation products will accumulate into reactant outlet streams. Radical attack diminishes the performance and stability of membrane electrode assembly (MEA). Chemical degradation will increase the flow rate of the relevant fluorinated degradation products. The concentrations are enhanced at elevated temperatures and lower humidity conditions. The byproduct fluoride and sulfate anion emission rates can be drawn as the signature of the PEMFC degradations. Electrochemical micro-sensors have been promising diagnostics tools due to low cost, small size, robustness, and their applications for continuous real-time monitoring. We have used fluoride emission as a sensing model. Highly fluoride-sensitive membranes (LaF3/CaF2) for inline microsensor arrays have been introduced as the sensing active layer. The functionalization of the working electrode varies the selectivity/sensitivity. High sensitivity sub 1 ppm has been achieved after optimizing the sensing layer deposited by spin-coating. In addition, advanced deep learning (DL) and long-short term memory (LSTM) algorithms will be used for the sensor-based predictive maintenance (PM) of PEMFCs. Even higher sensitivities sub 100 ppt and prediction accuracy for the end of life (EOL) can be achieved based on LSTM algorithms. The development of inline microsensor arrays gives a complementary approach to existing PEMFC characterization and diagnostics techniques. Figure 1

Estimating the burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution (ambient PM2.5 and ambient ozone) in South Africa for 2000, 2006 and 2012.

Globally, a growing body of research has shown that ambient air pollution is one of the most critical environmental issues, especially in relation to human health. Exposure to ambient air pollution leads to serious health conditions such as lower respiratory infections, cancers, diabetes mellitus type 2, ischaemic heart disease, stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. To estimate the burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution in South Africa (SA) for the years 2000, 2006 and 2012. Comparative risk assessment method was used to determine the burden of disease due to two pollutants (particulate matter (PM2.5) and ambient ozone). Regionally optimised fully coupled climate chemistry models and surface air pollution observations were used to generate concentrations of PM2.5 and ozone for each SA Census Small Area Level, for the year 2012. For 2000 and 2006, population-weighted PM2.5and ozone were estimated, based on the 2012 results. Following the identification of disease outcomes associated with particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm (PM2.5) and ozone exposure, the attributable burden of disease was estimated for 2000, 2006 and 2012. Furthermore, for the year 2012, the burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution exposure was computed at provincial levels. In 2012, approximately 97.6% of people in SA were exposed to PM2.5 at levels above the 2005 World Health Organization guideline: 10 μg/m3 annual mean. From 2000 to 2012, population-weighted annual average PM2.5 increased from 26.6 μg/m3 to 29.7 μg/m3, and ozone 6-month high 8-hour daily maximum increased from 64.4 parts per billion (ppb) to 72.1 ppb. At a national scale, in the year 2000, 15 619 (95% uncertainty interval (UI) 8 958 - 21 849) deaths were attributed to PM2.5 exposure, while 1 326 (95% UI 534 - 1 885) deaths were attributed to ozone. In 2006, an estimated 19 672 deaths (95% UI 11 526 - 27 086) were attributed to PM2.5, and a further 1 591 deaths (95% UI 651 - 2 236) to ozone exposure. In 2012, deaths attributed to PM2.5 were 19 507 (95% UI 11 318 - 27 111), and to ozone 1 734 (95% UI 727 - 2 399). Additionally, population-weighted provincial scale analysis showed that Gauteng Province had the highest number of attributable deaths due to both PM2.5 and ozone in 2012. The study showed that ambient air pollution exposure is an important health risk in SA, requiring both short- and long-term intervention. In the short term, the SA Ambient Air Quality Standards and industrial minimum emissions standards need to be enforced. In the longer term, to reduce air pollution and the associated disease burden, the combustion of fossil fuels as a source of energy for power generation and transportation, as well as industrial and domestic uses, needs to be replaced with clean renewable energy sources. In addition to local measures, when the southern African prevalent anticyclonic air dynamics that transport regionally emitted pollutants into SA (especially from biomass burning) are considered, it is also advisable to establish long-term regional co-operation in reducing air pollution.

Multimodal Single-Entity Electrochemical Fluoride Sensor for Fuel Cell Membrane Degradation Diagnostics

To the best of our knowledge, very few works have been done for the continuous real-time monitoring of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) membrane degradation based on fluoride-specific electrochemical microsensors. PEMFCs are eco-smart energy sources for efficient transportation but experience variable degradation rates that wear the Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA), a critical component of the fuel cell’s functionality. Current market options lack specific diagnostics and a legitimate indication of when exactly the membrane needs to be replaced. As such, this work focused on manufacturing a sensor for measuring MEA degradation in real-time by selectively monitoring fluoride concentration in effluent water, a signature PEMFCs degradation status, through functionalized LaF3:(Au nanoparticle) thin films (∼60 nm). The sensor’s exceptional specificity/sensitivity has been achieved in real-time at a sub 10 ppb level, optimized through spin-coating deposition and post-annealing process. Its multimodal readout has been achieved and studied through the characterizations of open circuit potential, cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry, and differential pulse voltammetry revealing a consistent linear decrease of 15.7 mA cm−2 at 0 ppb to 10.2 mA cm−2, while also maintaining its low-cost, small size, and robustness.

Innovative energy sources for Hyperloop high-speed transport

This article describes an innovative design of a solar-wind generator for a distributed energy Hyperloop high-speed system. The knowhow of this development is to mount flexible silicon solar panels (SP) on wind turbine blades, thus optimizing the thermal efficiency of solar panels. The basic dimensions of the wind turbine blades and the maximum internal flow velocities at the blade outlet (tips) are presented. At low wind velocities, it is rational to locate solar panels on the outer end (or the tip) of a blade, rather than along the blade length.The cooling effect can be increased by using materials with low thermal resistance for the SP and blades, or by reducing their thickness.To increase the heat transfer coefficient, it is recommended to use the airflow turbulence on the solar panel surface. In practice, this can be achieved both by changing the operating parameters and by introducing innovative design solutions.For better cooling of solar panels, it is recommended to use the technology of a wind flow sucked into the blade inner cavity. Changing the geometry of the outer end (tip) of the blades and the use of deflectors also give a better panel cooling parameters.

Multi-objective optimization of hybrid energy management system for expressway chargers

Fuel combustion is considered a vast energy source for transportation, resulting in the emission of pollutants into the environment. In contrast, electric vehicles (EVs) do not emit direct emissions and protect the environment from hazardous emissions. The rapid and enormous expansion of electric vehicles in China made electric chargers a crucial component of the transportation management system. The present study suggests a hybrid energy management approach to boost the amount of renewable energy going into the electric charger. Wind turbines and solar power generating modules generate energy for electric charging. Excessive energy is stored in energy storage modules and sent to power grid modules, making reverse supply more flexible. Three optimization algorithms, including PSO, GA, and BBO, were employed to find the highest energy cost and power grid dependence with different combinations. The system is considered on-grid and can purchase or sell electricity to maintain energy balance for electric charging devices. The optimization results show that the highest energy cost in a reasonable scheme can reach 0.034546 $/kWh with a share of maximum renewable energy of 96.50 %. Finally, the balance between energy cost and dependency on the power grid can be reached based on the present analysis findings, as the energy cost of the final equilibrium scheme is 0.057475 $/kWh, with a share of 90.82 % in renewable energy. The proposed study can effectively balance energy supply and demand and further support the global agenda of UN-2030 for sustainable development, especially SDG-7.

Numerical Simulations of Internal Solitary Wave Evolution Beneath an Ice Keel

AbstractThe deformation and evolution of internal solitary waves (ISWs) beneath an ice keel can enable potential diapycnal mixing and facilitate upper ocean heat transport, despite a poor understanding of the underlying physics and energetics of ISWs in Polar environments. This study aims to understand the dynamic processes and mixing properties during the evolution of ISWs beneath ice keels in the Arctic Ocean using high‐resolution, non‐hydrostatic simulations. Ice keels can destabilize ISWs through overturning events. Consequently, the initial ISW disintegrates and transfers its energy into secondary smaller‐scale waves. During the ISW‐ice interaction, ISW‐induced turbulent mixing can reach O(10−3) W/kg with a magnitude of resultant heat flux of O(10)W/m. Sensitivity experiments demonstrated that the ISW‐ice interaction weakened as the ice keel depth decreased, and consequently, the resultant turbulent mixing and upward heat transfer also decreased. The ice keel depth was critical to the evolution and disintegration of an ISW beneath the ice keel, while the approximate ice keel shape had little effect. Our results provide an important but previously overlooked energy source for upper ocean heat transport in the Arctic Ocean.

Synthesizing Pt-Ni/C Nanoframes electrocatalyst using the solvothermal and in-house developed method for PEM fuel cells

As South Africa moves towards the production and storage of green energy sources, proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells have been characterized as promising energy sources for transportation, heating, and power sources and have an efficient energy conversion that does not allow greenhouse gas emissions. However, to improve the energy efficiency and to reduce the system cost, and make it suitable for large-scale commercialization, precious metal catalyst needs to be developed with improved catalyst activities for PEM fuel cells. Due to the high cost of platinum, platinum alloy nanostructures have been investigated for use as an electrocatalyst in PEM fuel cells. Platinum-nickel alloy nanostructures in previous research studies have shown 36- and 22-times enhancement in mass and specific activity respectively, towards the cathodic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in PEM fuel cells and for the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) in direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) than the Pt/C catalyst. Therefore, this research focused on developing rich Pt-skin platinumnickel nanoframes which were synthesized using solvothermal and in-house developed methods. The intermediate products were etched to remove the interior using either a weak acid or an oxidative acid for comparison. The final product was supported by Vulcan XC-72 at a loading of 20 wt. % Pt-Ni. The properties of Pt-Ni/C will be characterized and evaluated to determine if the nanoframes are formed. The preliminary results for the X-ray diffraction pattern showed that the structure of Pt-Ni contracted and affected the catalyst properties. The catalytic activities were determined by electrochemical methods using thin-film RDE measurements, the results indicated that Pt-Ni as-synthesized has higher specific activity at 900 mV versus RHE. The specific and mass activity of the oxygen reduction reaction for Pt-Ni/C will be compared to the activities of the current high-performing Pt/C catalyst.

Renewable Energy Transition: A panacea to the ravaging effects of climate change in Nigeria

Environmental issues linked to climate change and global warming have been at the center stage of discussion all over the world. This is due to their magnitude and a broader scope of consequences. The catastrophic effects of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO2, CO, water vapor, and ozone, coupled with other artificially induced chemicals like CFCs have shifted weather patterns across the globe, thereby threatening the environment unpleasantly. In Nigeria, the unprecedented utilization of fossil-based fuels as the main energy source for electricity, transportation, industrial, agricultural, and domestic purposes is one of the contributory factors of climate change. As a result, air pollution, land spills by oil, and increasing heatwaves negatively impacted the ecosystem by intimidating the environment, counteracting biodiversity, decelerating the economy, and provoking human comfort while simultaneously antagonizing socio-economic growth and sustainable development. Recently, the abrupt seizure of rainfall in northern Nigeria left many farmlands burning while many other places where been wiped out by heavy flooding. These scenarios have heightened food shortage, economic hardship and rendered thousands homeless. Thus, the government needs to intensify the campaign for afforestation by planting many trees to support green conservation of biodiversity and unleash the huge potentials of renewable energy resources in the country, as the plausible options to remediate the lingering energy failure and ravaging effects of climate changes. Therefore, this short review of communications X-rayed some recent devasting incidences caused by climate change, its impacts on various sectors, and the need to explore renewable energy resources in the country.

Environmental life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles from the current and future energy mix perspective

Electric vehicles and renewable energy sources in transportation played a significant role in promoting sustainable transportation systems. The overall performance of the electric vehicle is highly dependent on the electricity mix consumed during their production and use phase. Therefore, a comprehensive and dynamic assessment is necessary to provide accurate guidance to users and policymakers. Therefore, this study presents a comparative cradle to grave life cycle analysis of electric vehicles in 10 selected countries using the current and future electricity mix scenarios. We present the environmental footprint of vehicle production, transportation, and use phases. The results revealed that EVs in China with current (2019) and future 2025 electricity mix scenarios had a higher impact than all other EVs. In contrast, EV with 2030 Norway electricity mix was an optimal choice and has the least environmental impact in most of the selected categories. Moreover, it was also found that all EVs with 2030 electricity mix had lower environmental damages than EV 2019 electricity mix. Besides, this study outcome indicated that the use of clean energy could help to decrease the environmental impact and mitigate climate change all around the globe.

Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources in Road Transport in EU Countries—TOPSIS Results

The primary aim of this study was to assess and compare EU countries in terms of the use of renewable energy sources in road transport. The following research tasks were undertaken to realize this aim: (1) a review of the literature concerning the negative externalities in road transport, the concept of sustainable development, and legal regulations referring to the utilization of renewable energy sources; (2) presentation of changes in energy consumption (both traditional and renewable) in road transport in EU countries in the years 2008–2019; and (3) identification of leaders among the EU countries in terms of consumption of renewable energy sources in road transport. The aim and tasks were realized using the literature review and TOPSIS method as well as descriptive, tabular, and graphic methods. The analysis was conducted for 28 EU countries according to the status for 2019. The period of 2008–2019 was investigated. Sources of materials included literature on the subject and Eurostat data. Although renewable energy sources accounted for as little as 6% of total energy consumption in road transport in EU countries in 2019, this is a significant topical issue. It results from the direction in which changes need to be implemented in terms of energy generation in this area of human activity. It turned out that blended biodiesel and blended biogasoline were the most commonly used fuels originating from renewable sources. The application of the TOPSIS method resulted in the identification of five groups of EU member countries, which differed in terms of the degree of utilization of renewable energy sources in road transport. Luxemburg, Sweden, and Austria were leaders in this respect. In turn, Malta, Estonia, and Croatia were characterized by very low consumption of renewable energy. The greatest progress in the utilization of renewable energy sources in road transport was recorded in Sweden, Finland, and Bulgaria (changes in the relative closeness to the ideal solution from 0.15 to 0.27), while the greatest reduction in relation to other countries was observed in Austria, Germany, and Lithuania (changes from −0.35 to −0.22).

Study on CRDI engine for the various fuel injection pressures

The people in our society are highly depended on petroleum for their activities. The petroleum is a finite source and it produce several problems such as rising carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. Around 75% of fuel produced is used for as an energy source for transportation, heat and electricity generation. This study was carried out to understand the effect of fuel injection pressure on the CRDI engine for the performance, combustion and emissions. This work has been done out on a four stroke, single cylinder diesel engine. The fuel injection pressure was varied from 400 bar, 500 bar and 600 bar by having the fuel injection angle as 20°bTDC. The collected data were analysed for various parameters such as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency (BTE), CO, CO2, HC, NOx and Smoke emissions for diesel fuel. CO, HC and smoke emissions were reduced by increasing the fuel injection pressure. NO and CO2 emissions were increasing by increasing the fuel injection pressure. This is due to injected fuel droplets find smaller as the injection pressure increase, which leads to improve atomization of the fuel. The BTE and SFC were not much varying.

A Study on Water-Induced Damage Severity on Diesel Engine Injection System Using Emulsified Diesel Fuels

Diesel engine emissions contribute nearly 30% of greenhouse effects and diverse health and environmental problems. Amidst these problems, it is estimated that there will be a 75% increase in energy demand for transportation by 2040, of which diesel fuel constitutes a major source of energy for transportation. Being a major source of air pollution, efforts are currently being made to curb the pollution spread. The use of water-in-diesel (W/D)-emulsified fuels comes as a readily available (and cost-effective) option with other benefits including engine thermal efficiency, reduced costs, and NOx reduction; nonetheless, the inherent effects—power loss, component wear, corrosion, etc. still pose strong concerns. This study investigates the behavior and damage severity of a common rail (CR) diesel fuel injection system using exploratory and statistical methods under different W/D emulsion conditions and engine speeds. Results reveal that the effect of W/D emulsion fuels on engine operating conditions are reflected in the CR, which provides a reliable avenue for condition monitoring. Also, the effect of W/D emulsion on injection system components-piston, nozzle needle, and ball seat–are presented alongside related discussions.

Use of Renewable Energy Sources in the European Union and the Visegrad Group Countries—Results of Cluster Analysis

Increasing the use of renewable energy sources is one of the strategic objectives of the European Union. In this regard, it seems necessary to answer the question: which of the member countries are the most effective in its implementation? Therefore, the main goal was to distinguish groups of European Union countries, including the Visegrad Group, differing in the use of renewable energy sources in transport, electricity, heating and cooling (based on cluster analysis). All members of the EU were determinedly selected for research on 1 February 2020 (27 countries). The research period embraced the years 2009–2019. The sources of materials were the literature on the topic and data from Eurostat. Descriptive, tabular, graphical methods and cluster analysis were used in the presentation and analysis of materials. In 2019 wind and hydro power accounted for two-thirds of the total electricity generated from renewable sources. In 2019, renewable energy sources made up 34% of gross electricity consumption in the EU-27. Wind and hydro power accounted for two-thirds of the total electricity generated from renewable sources (35% each). Moreover, it was determined that there were 5 clusters that differed in their use of renewable energy sources. The highest average renewable energy consumption in transport, heating and cooling in 2019 was characterized by a cluster consisting of Sweden and Finland. In contrast, the highest average renewable energy consumption in electricity was characterized by a cluster consisting of countries such as: Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Latvia and Portugal. Finally, in a group that included countries such as Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands and the entire VG (Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia and Poland), renewable energy consumption rates (in transport, electricity, heating and cooling) were lower than the EU average (27 countries).

The Key Techno-Economic and Manufacturing Drivers for Reducing the Cost of Power-to-Gas and a Hydrogen-Enabled Energy System

Water electrolysis is a process which converts electricity into hydrogen and is seen as a key technology in enabling a net-zero compatible energy system. It will enable the scale-up of renewable electricity as a primary energy source for heating, transport, and industry. However, displacing the role currently met by fossil fuels might require a price of hydrogen as low as 1 $/kg, whereas renewable hydrogen produced using electrolysis is currently 10 $/kg. This article explores how mass manufacturing of proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers can reduce the capital cost and, thus, make the production of renewable power to hydrogen gas (PtG) more economically viable. A bottom up direct manufacturing model was developed to determine how economies of scale can reduce the capital cost of electrolysis. The results demonstrated that (assuming an annual production rate of 5000 units of 200 kW PEM electrolysis systems) the capital cost of a PEM electrolysis system can reduce from 1990 $/kW to 590 $/kW based on current technology and then on to 431 $/kW and 300 $/kW based on the an installed capacity scale-up of ten- and one-hundred-fold, respectively. A life-cycle costing analysis was then completed to determine the importance of the capital cost of an electrolysis system to the price of hydrogen. It was observed that, based on current technology, mass manufacturing has a large impact on the price of hydrogen, reducing it from 6.40 $/kg (at 10 units units per year) to 4.16 $/kg (at 5000 units per year). Further analysis was undertaken to determine the cost at different installed capacities and found that the cost could reduce further to 2.63 $/kg and 1.37 $/kg, based on technology scale-up by ten- and one hundred-fold, respectively. Based on the 2030 (and beyond) baseline assumptions, it is expected that hydrogen production from PEM electrolysis could be used as an industrial process feed stock, provide power and heat to buildings and as a fuel for heavy good vehicles (HGVs). In the cases of retrofitted gas networks for residential or industrial heating solutions, or for long distance transport, it represents a more economically attractive and mass-scale compatible solution when compared to electrified heating or transport solutions.

Energy management system of the hybrid ultracapacitor-battery electric drive vehicles

The search for new, alternative propulsion and energy sources in transport is one of the economic and technological priorities of the current decade. The modern development of hybrid drives and electric means of transport makes it possible to at least partially diversify conventional drive systems. The study discusses the use of a battery and ultraca-pacitor in electric vehicles. Simulation analyzes of energy flow were performed using the solutions of electric drive systems and various energy storage control algorithms. The research was carried out in relation to the use of braking energy, its conversion into electricity and its storage in a battery or ultracapacitor. The operating conditions of the battery and the ultracapacitor were assessed in terms of specific energy consumption while driving. The article pro-posed the use of a drive system connected in series, the last link of which was an ultracapacitor. Such a solution signif-icantly reduced the use of the battery as well as its regular charging-discharging. At the same time, it required the use of a high-capacity ultracapacitor, which contributed to increasing its charging time. The analyzes were carried out using standardized research tests as well as tests in real traffic conditions. The research was carried out with the use of the AVL Cruise software for the analysis of energy flow in vehicles; a middle class passenger vehicle was selected for the tests, equipped with an electrochemical battery and – in the next stage of the research – an ultracapacitor. Three research models were used: I) typical electric drive system; II) a system with the use of ultracapacitors ran by a simple control algorithm; III) a system with the use of ultracapacitors with an advanced control algorithm (the algorithm took into account the change of driving conditions to the ultracapacitor charging conditions). The advantages of using ultracapacitors in the electric drive of a vehicle were demonstrated, especially for results obtained in real traffic condi-tions. Analyzing the simulation tests results allowed to determine the most advantageous options of utilizing these systems, in particular in the aspect of increased possibilities of algorithms controlling the flow of electricity in the drive system.

Design And Analysis Of Chainless Transmission Electric Bicycle

With increasing in an air pollution and scarcity of fuels (petrol and diesel), electric bikes were playing an important role in this new era. E-bikes were eco-friendly and cost effective for transportation. The demand and constantly increasingly of petrol and diesel cost has made engineers to think for new source of energy for transportation. Electric vehicles gave a breakthrough solution to satisfy the needs required but the cost of electric bikes or e-bikes were too high that normal people cannot afford it easily. In order to fill that gap that everyone to afford an electric bike, this project aimed to design an electric bike. In this project, mainly to reduce the manufacturing cost the electric bike is converted the normal bicycle to an electric bike; the project work designed it in the manner it can be propelled through both manual and electric drive called as e-cycle or hybrid bicycle. In addition to this conversion, an attempt has been done to design this hybrid bicycle without chain, i.e.: gear and shaft mechanism for transmitting the power. Own frame has been designed for the e-cycle which can be used for load carrying purpose also. Frame was designed using solid works and with the help of analyses this project came to the conclusion to use AISI 4130 as a frame material for this hybrid cycle.

Oil Exploitation, Neglect of Coal and the Ngwo Society, 1909 - 1987

Coal was one of the catalysts of the Industrial Revolution which started in England and spread to other parts of Europe. It provided the main source of primary energy for industry and transportation. The spread of coal mining to Africa was as a result of European conquest and subsequent colonization. The conquest of Ngwo in 1908 led to the discovery and eventual mining of coal in Enugu-Ngwo from 1915. In the period exploitation lasted, coal from the town furnished the energy needed for transportation, industrialization and urban development in Nigeria. It also provided direct and indirect employment to people across Europe and Africa and as well facilitated international trade between Nigeria and her partners across the world. Since petroleum was discovered in Nigeria in 1956 and as was found a better alternative to coal in terms of energy and wealth generation, the coal industry suffered neglect and gradually collapsed. How the collapse of the coal industry as a result of the rise of petroleum affected Ngwo people is the central theme of this paper. It contends that, though petroleum is regarded as a source of wealth to Nigeria, it is, nonetheless a source of poverty to Ngwo people. The British colonialists dispossessed them of massive farmlands upon which they operated their local economy to set up the colliery and other facilities. Also, more than 8,000 of the people who contributed their youthful years mostly as miners lost their jobs without compensation. The development prospects especially under corporate–social responsibilities and employment generation which the people ought to benefit from with the continued existence of the coal exploitation were lost with the demise of the industry. Primary sources constitute greater percentage of the sources deployed for this historical reconstruction. They include oral tradition granted by reliable informants and source materials acquired from the National Archives Enugu. They are be augmented by secondary sources which include books, journal articles and other un-published materials. Available facts will be analyzed using qualitative research methodology.