Paint Solvents Research Articles

Propylene carbonate synthesis routes using CO2: DFT and thermodynamic analysis

Propylene carbonate (PC) is utilized to improve performance and stability in lithium-ion batteries as an electrolyte component and as a high-performance solvent in paints, varnishes, and adhesives. It is a versatile chemical used in many different industries. It also functions as a plasticizer in polymers and a solvent in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations. In the current work, chemical equilibrium analyses of a number of potential processes involved in the synthesis of PC were conducted. To examine the thermodynamic viability of all five approaches, the fluctuation of ΔGmo with temperature for the key processes of PC synthesis was investigated in a specific temperature range of 25 °C-180 °C and at 1 bar and 60 bar pressures. The heat capacity values were estimated using the Rozicka-Domalski method. Benson Group-Increment Theory (BGIT) was used to evaluate the unknown ΔfH for a molecule. By examining the impact of temperature (25 °C-180 °C) and pressure (0–100 bars) on chemical equilibrium constant and equilibrium conversion of reactants, the main reactions of PC synthesis pathways were compared. It was discovered that the one-pot synthesis route and the o-chloropropanol and CO2 approach were superior. The DFT calculations were performed to study the energy changes taking place to convert propylene, glycerol, and propylene glycol (PG) into PC. Both thermodynamic and DFT calculations proved that the PG and urea route is the least favorable for synthesizing PC.

Understanding the Hazards of Hexane and Short-Term Exposure to Air Contaminated with Hexane Affects the Nervous System and can Cause Dizziness

Abstract: The term ‘hydrocarbon’ is self-explanatory which means compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons play a key role in our daily life. You must be familiar with the terms ‘LPG’ and ‘CNG’ used as fuels. LPG is the abbreviated form of liquified petroleum gas whereas CNG stands for compressed natural gas. Another term ‘LNG’ (liquified natural gas) is also in news these days. This is also a fuel and is obtained by liquifaction of natural gas. Petrol, diesel and kerosene oil are obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum found under the earth’s crust. Coal gas is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal. Natural gas is found in upper strata during drilling of oil wells. The gas after compression is known as compressed natural gas. LPG is used as a domestic fuel with the least pollution. Kerosene oil is also used as a domestic fuel but it causes some pollution. Automobiles need fuels like petrol, diesel and CNG. Petrol and CNG operated automobiles cause less pollution. All these fuels contain mixture of hydrocarbons, which are sources of energy. Hydrocarbons are also used for the manufacture of polymers like polythene, polypropene, polystyrene etc. Higher hydrocarbons are used as solvents for paints. They are also used as the starting materials for manufacture of many dyes and drugs. Thus, you can well understand the importance of hydrocarbons in your daily life. In this unit, you will learn more about hydrocarbons

An undergrad experiment for the at-home study of fluorescence: Extraction of quinine and chlorophyll from Cinchona tree bark

Herein we describe a method for the effective extraction and qualitative detection of quinine and chlorophyll. Both compounds can be successfully extracted from Cinchona tree bark (Cinchona pubescens Vahl) using nothing but household materials, usually cheap and easily acquired items available in any hardware store. During solid-liquid extraction with reflux, using an organic solvent is used to retain both compounds. Afterward, the compounds are partitioned between water and paint solvent. The organic phase containing the chlorophyll is saved, and the aqueous layer is acidified. Finally, an ultraviolet (UV) light is used to provoke fluorescence in both compounds.

Improvement of the method of processing animal bones in the production of educational and museum exhibits

The method of processing the bones of domestic and wild animals has been improved and maximally adapted to domestic conditions. The work was carried out on the basis of the laboratory of taxidermy and museum affairs of the department of anatomy and histology named after Р. Kowalskiy Bilа Tserkva National Agrarian University. The aim of the work was the practical application of the improved method of processing the bones of domestic and wild animals for the production of museum exhibits and educational materials. For the treatment and degreasing of bones, Pervol and Gala washing powders with a whitening effect and Fairy brand dishwashing detergents used as surfactants. Precursor-free chemical paint solvents 646, 647, 650 and White Spirit have proven themselves well as solvents for intraosseous fat. At the stage of preparation and cleaning of the bones from the muscles, they were subjected to maceration in water at room temperature for 7-10 days. Degreasing of bones in solvents lasted up to 1.5 months with daily visual control and mixing. Visual control have carried out by illuminating the bones with lamps with bright light. 60% perhydrol diluted with water in a ratio of 1:4 was used as a bleaching agent. As a result of comparative testing of various means, it was established that it is better to use deep penetration soil "Artisan No. 7" with exposure of bones in it for up to 7 days as a fxing preparation. It should be noted that chemical treatment of bones using household detergents and technical solvents is quite effective and affordable, although it takes a long time. The proposed method makes it possible to produce high-quality, visually aesthetic and tactilely pleasant, absolutely odorless, uniformly white educational preparations and museum exhibits of bones with minimal fnancial costs and technical equipment. Key words: domestic, wild animals, skeleton bones odorless, solvent.

Thermodynamics of solvent sorption by layers of carbon-chain polymers in damping rubber blankets

The paper addresses the study of the thermodynamic compatibility of carbon-chain polymer compositions of offset rubber blankets with low-molecular-weight liquids, paint solvents and care agents for rubber damping machine parts used in transport, mechanical engineering and printing industries. The Flory-Huggins parameters χ were determined by inverted gas chromatography and calculation performed using the mathematical model of sorption, and the correlation between χ obtained by these two independent methods was found. The excess thermodynamic characteristics of the studied systems G E, H E and S E were calculated to predict the compatibility of components in these systems. The relationship was found between χ that characterizes the thermodynamic quality of the solvent and the equilibrium swelling index of polymer networks.

Successful prevention of organic solvent induced disorders: history and lessons.

In this discussion paper, we describe the history of the science and societal action resulting in the mitigation of neurotoxic disorders from exposure to organic solvents at the workplaces in Sweden. When alkyd paints were introduced in large scale in construction painting in the 1960s and 1970s, Scandinavian unions voiced increasing concern as members reported symptoms like headache and vertigo, supported by participatory studies and case studies. Although acute and chronic neurotoxic effects were established for some specific solvents such as carbon disulphide, this was not the case for those used in the new paints. Union advocacy promoted formal epidemiological studies, providing increasing evidence for chronic neurotoxicity at levels far below current occupational exposure levels. The results were widely disseminated and accepted and led to concerted action with preventive measures, most importantly substitution of the organic solvents in paints for indoor use, but also drastic reductions in occupational exposure limits. The findings also resulted in funding of further research on solvent toxicity and the establishment of expert groups to advice authorities on occupational standards for exposure to chemicals. The substitution strategy was subsequently adopted in many other countries and occupational exposure limits were lowered, although several years or even decades later. While the societal context in Sweden was unique in many ways, we conclude that there are lessons to be learned from this preventive success when addressing current challenges.

Gas phase interactions between tellurium and organic material in severe nuclear accident scenarios

One of the volatile fission products potentially released during a severe nuclear accident is tellurium. Recently, tellurium has been shown to form volatile organic tellurides from paint solvents in aqueous solutions which could further increase the release. However, not much is known about the possible interactions between tellurium and organic material in gas phase. In this study, tellurium was exposed to conditions simulating the containment atmosphere during an accident. Moreover, volatile organic compounds were introduced to the gas phase representing the presence of organic material in the containment during the accident. The results suggest that tellurium aerosols and organic material interact in the gas phase which was observed as an increase in the gaseous fraction and a change in the XPS spectra. Although no exact species were identified, the results raise questions about the behavior of tellurium in severe accident conditions, especially, regarding the reactions involving organic material.

A comprehensive investigation on source apportionment and multi-directional regional transport of volatile organic compounds and ozone in urban Zhengzhou

To understand the characteristics, source apportionment, and regional transport of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ozone (O3) in a typical city with severe air pollution in central China, we observed and analyzed 115 VOC species at an urban site in Zhengzhou from 29 July to 26 September 2021. During this period, observation- and emission-based approaches revealed that Zhengzhou was in a VOC-limited regime. The average concentration of total VOCs (TVOCs) was 162.25 ± 71.42 μg/m3, dominated by oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs, 34.49%), alkanes (24.29%), and aromatics (19.49%). Six VOC sources were identified using positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, including paint solvent usage (25.32%), secondary production (24.11%), industrial production (19.22%), vehicle exhaust (16.18%), biogenic emission (8.87%), and combustion (6.30%). To assess the regional contribution and source apportionment of VOCs and O3, Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (CAMx) with the Ozone Source Apportionment Technology (OSAT) was used for simulation. Results showed that the VOCs were significantly affected by local emissions (about 70%), while O3 was mainly attributed to regional and super-regional transport. Regarding multi-directional regional transport of VOCs and O3, dominant contributions were from the northeast and east-northeast directions, and O3 contributions were also predominantly from the east and east-southeast directions. In terms of source apportionment, the transportation and industrial sectors (including solvent usage) were the major contributors to O3 and VOCs. To alleviate VOCs and O3 pollution, transportation and industrial emission reduction should be strengthened, and regional coordination, especially from the northeast to east-southeast directions, should be emphasized in addition to local management.

Method Development for Detecting Low Level Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) among Workers and Residents from a Carpentry Work Shop in a Palestinian Village.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are considered a major public health concern in industrial location areas. The presence of exposure to (VOCs) has raised concern regarding the health effects caused by chronic human exposure as this will increase cancer diseases in the village. An analytical method has been developed and modified to help us detect 38 VOCs in the blood of 38 volunteers who are related to a carpentry shop at the parts-per-trillion level. To measure and evaluate the potential risk, several devices, such as portable passive monitors and air-collected samples, in addition to blood concentration, were used to study three different occupational groups. Ten of the volunteers are employees at the shop, 10 volunteers live very close to the shop, and 10 of them are students in an elementary school very close to the shop. In this study, we developed an automated analytical method using headspace (HS) together with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) connected to capillary gas chromatography (GC) equipped with quadrupole mass spectrometry (MS). The detection limits for the method used were measured in the range from 0.001 to 0.15 ng/L, using linear calibration curves that have three orders of magnitude. The detected concentrations ranged from 3 ng L-1 for trichloroethene to 91 ng L-1 for toluene and 270 ng L-1 for 2,4-diisocyanate, which was derived from the paint solvents used for the wood in the carpentry shop and the paints on the walls. More than half of all assessed species (80%) had mean concentration values less than 50 ng L-1, which is the maximum allowed for most VOCs. The major chemical types among the compounds quantified will be those we found in our previous study in the surrounding air of a carpentry workshop in Deir Ballout in Palestine, which were toluene diisocyanate and butyl cyanate. Some were found to be highly present air. Most of the measurements were below the guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO). Despite the fact that this study only involved a small number of smokers, smoking was found to be connected with several blood and breath components. This group includes unsaturated hydrocarbons (1,3-butadiene, 1,3-pentadiene, 2-butene), furans (2,5-dimethylfuran), and acetonitrile. The proposed classification of measured species into systemic (blood-borne) and exogenous volatiles is strictly hypothetical, as some species may have several origins.

Dynamics of diffusion, evaporation, and retention of organic solvents in paints by unilateral NMR and HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy

Transport of organic solvents in polymeric matrices plays a central role in many processes of interest to the coatings industry. Previous studies have focused on individual processes taking place in the solvent-paint system. In the present study, we report results on the molecular dynamics in a solvent/paint system during the entire sequence of absorption, diffusion, swelling, and evaporation processes, obtained non-invasively, in situ, and in real time using unilateral NMR relaxometry. The associated chemical structures were investigated using HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy. Four distinct ranges of molecular motion in the solvent/paint film were identified based on proton NMR transverse relaxation time (T2) data. The fast motion of the freely moving solvent molecules was discriminated from the slower motion of the so-called bound phase of the solvent molecules physically and chemically interacting with the cross-linked polymer network. In addition, two distinct domains of the cross-linked and mobile phases of the polymerized oil were observed, allowing the study of both the dynamics of the swelling-contraction process of the polymer and of the solubilization process. Such non-invasive analyses provide significant information on transport phenomena of the solvent in the paint film, as well as on the effects of various solvents applied to oil paintings.

Dialkyl Carbonate Synthesis: Recent Scientific And Technological Advancements

Dialkyl Carbonates (DAC's) are essential organic compounds (structurally seen as esters of carbonic acid) that have gained significant importance over the last few decades. They can be used as solvents, reagents, and for the synthesis of various organic compounds such as 5-6 membered heterocyclic compounds, indolines, and piperidines. They are highly versatile since they are used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, petrochemical, and agricultural industries. They are also used as solvents in Li-ion batteries, pesticides, fertilizers, polymer synthesis, beauty products, paints and coatings. This article analyses the different synthetic methods of DAC's, technological advancements in their syntheses, and the innovation with respect to discoveries of catalysts for these syntheses. It also includes its applications in various industries and uses in other reactions.

Study protocol to determine the effects of solvents on lung function among paint industry workers in Mauritius: A cross-sectional study.

Background:The effects of exposure to solvents in paints have been widely studied, but very little information is at hand with only a small number of studies carried out on pulmonary function of paint industry workers. The aim of this study is to determine the respiratory effects of exposure to solvents among workers of the paint industry in Mauritius.Design and methods:A quantitative cross-sectional study will be conducted in three paint factories across Mauritius. 388 participants would be selected using simple random sampling and be subjected to a pre-designed questionnaire for data collection. Lung function test using a spirometer will also be conducted. Data analysis will be performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS v26.0). The exposed workers will be classified by shift duration, that is, individuals with weekly solvent exposure of ≤12 and >12 h respectively. Using multivariable regression analysis, odds ratio will be calculated to analyze the relationship between the dependent variable (hours of exposure to solvents) and independent variables while adjusting for socio-demographic factors. Independent t-test will also be used to identify any difference between the means of lung function tests and the two exposure groups. Based on pre-observation in the three paint industries, it is anticipated that male workers could be found less likely to be exposed to solvents as compared to female workers. Also, workers with a level of education below secondary and lower secondary categories could have a higher likelihood of being exposed ≤12 h/week shift. Those who are aware of occupational hazards and could indicate to have used personal protective equipment (PPE) could be less likely exposed to solvents.Expected Impact of the study for Public Health:This study has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Johannesburg- ethics clearance number: REC-919-2021. The results of this study will be made available to all stakeholders involved in Health and Safety in the Mauritius. Meetings with professional in the field, especially the concerned paint factories, have been arranged to discuss the impact of solvent exposure and propose remedial actions to protect the workers.

Organic Telluride Formation from Paint Solvents Under Gamma Irradiation

The interactions between tellurium and organic material during a nuclear reactor accident are critical to source term estimations because of the possible formation of volatile species. Reactions taking place in the containment sump are of interest since these can lead to re-volatilization and increase the fission product source term. This paper presents results from experiments investigating the interaction of tellurium dioxide with three paint solvents—texanol ester, methyl isobutyl ketone, and toluene—under containment sump conditions. The experiments were performed by irradiating a mixed solution of tellurium dioxide and paint solvents at a dose rate of 4 kGy/h up to 300 kGy. The resulting samples were analyzed for tellurium concentration and speciation. Tellurium(IV) was found to reduce to metallic tellurium under irradiation when paint solvents were present. More importantly, several volatile organic tellurides were identified in the irradiated samples, which suggests that tellurium can form volatile species in sump conditions when in contact with dissolved paint solvents. This paper provides novel evidence of organic telluride formation in the sump and raises further interest in tellurium chemistry during a severe nuclear reactor accident.

VOC characteristics and their source apportionment in a coastal industrial area in the Yangtze River Delta, China

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are important precursors of secondary organic compounds and ozone, which raise major environmental concerns. To investigate the VOC emission characteristics, measurements of VOCs based on proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry during 2017 were conducted in a coastal industrial area in Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China. Based on seasonal variation in species concentration, the positive matrix factorization (PMF) receptor model was applied to apportion the sources of VOCs in each season. The PMF results revealed that unknown acetonitrile source, paint solvent, electronics industry, biomass burning, secondary formation and biogenic emission were mainly attributed to VOC pollution. Biomass burning and secondary formation were the major sources of VOCs and contributed more than 70% of VOC emissions in spring and autumn. Industry-related sources contributed 8.65%–31.2% of the VOCs throughout the year. The unknown acetonitrile source occurred in winter and spring, and contributed 7.6%–43.73% of the VOC emissions in the two seasons. Conditional probability function (CPF) analysis illustrated that the industry sources came from local emission, while biomass burning and biogenic emission mainly came from the northwest direction. The potential source contribution function (PSCF) model showed that secondary formation-related source was mainly from Jiangsu Province, northeastern China and the surrounding ocean. The potential source areas of unknown acetonitrile source were northern Zhejiang Province, southern Jiangsu Province and the northeastern coastal marine environments.

Hierarchical CaTiO3 microspheres for acetone sensing

The development of a suitable chemical route for the synthesis of exotic nanoarchitectures as a promising candidate for reliable volatile organic compounds (VOCs) monitoring continues to be a formidable task. Acetone (C3H6O) is one such compound that is commonly found as a solvent in paints, resins, cellulose acetate, and even in the human breath condensate of a diabetic patient. Despite the colossal attention, innovations in VOCs monitoring from viewpoints of materials science are imperative and alluring in the fields of medical devices, and indoor air quality. Herein, we report on acetone sensing characteristics based on calcium titanate (CaTiO3) in the form of hierarchical microspheres synthesized using the solvothermal technique at 200 °C for 18 h. The microspheres depicted a highly polydispersed morphology with a shape and texture of walnut ranging from 100 to 700 nm. Acetone sensing parameters were investigated by comparing hierarchical microspheres with a control sample, thus validating the dependency of sensitivity on the morphology. Hierarchical nanostructures with large surface area (91.45 m2/g), when compared to the control microsensor showcased 6-fold enhancement in the sensitivity, superior selectivity (10 gases), excellent long term stability (21 days), minimum CoV (1.18%) with quick response kinetics (τRes=75 and τRec=95 s) at 160 °C. The enhanced performance depicted here by the hierarchical microsensor is foreseen to make it highly suitable for applications requiring low ppm acetone detection in a dry and humid environment.

Development and validation of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for the estimation of a potential genotoxic impurity 2-(2-chloroethoxy)ethanol in hydroxyzine.

2-(2-Chloroethoxy)ethanol (CEE) belongs to the so-called cohort of concerns which were classified as highly potent mutagenic carcinogens by the World Health Organization. It is widely used in the synthesis of the essential anti-histamine drug hydroxyzine. In addition, it is used as a primary solvent in dyes, nitrocellulose, paints, inks and resins. Owing to its potential genotoxicity, an efficient liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed for the quantitative estimation of CEE traces in an active pharmaceutical ingredients and in tablet dosage forms of hydroxyzine-free base. The chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 column using a gradient elution mode with a binary solvent system (ammonium formate and methanol). Mass detection was performed for CEE using a positive mode with selected ion monitoring technique at m/z value of [M + NH4 ]+ . The developed method was validated as per the International Conference on Harmonizaiton guidelines. The quantitation limit, linearity and recoveries were found to be 0.56 ppm, 0.56-7.49 ppm (r2 > 0.9985) and 93.6-99.3%, respectively. The proposed method was highly compatible and was used effectively to estimate CEE traces in different stages of drug synthesis and in tablet dosage forms of hydroxyzine for routine and stability testing.

An analysis of the temporal variability in volatile organic compounds (VOCs) within megacity Seoul and an identification of their sources

In this study, the volume mixing ratio of 55 volatile organic compound (VOC) species was measured every hour using the online TD-GC-FID system during the period from January 2018 to December 2019 in Seoul. The most abundant species were ethane (10.0 ppbv) and toluene (4.1 ppbv), with alkanes and aromatics accounting for 57.5% and 31.5% of the total VOCs (TVOC), respectively. The mixing ratios of the TVOC were markedly higher in July and November, mainly owing to the presence of aromatics and alkanes, respectively, but were lower in other months, without any significant differences in other months. Of the aromatics, the maximum mixing ratios of xylene, benzene, and toluene were observed in summer, winter, and both seasons, respectively. Principal component analysis showed that emissions from traffic and solvent use were the main VOC sources, which were further categorized into liquefied natural gas/liquefied petroleum gas/gasoline, diesel fuel, mixed combustion, industrial solvents, and paint solvents. The two solvent sources were well represented by toluene and xylene, respectively. In addition, the distinct VOC composition of the air masses clustered by the back trajectory reveals the origin, seasonality, and transport characteristic of the five source categories. This study is the first report on multiyear variability of VOC mixing ratios in Seoul that highlights the contribution from evaporation sources and fugitive emissions and the potential impact of intercity transport from industrial areas near Seoul.

Dynamics of Diffusion, Evaporation, and Retention of Organic Solvents in Paints by Portable Nmr and Hr-Mas Nmr Spectroscopy

Dynamics of Diffusion, Evaporation, and Retention of Organic Solvents in Paints by Portable Nmr and Hr-Mas Nmr Spectroscopy

The effects of breathing exercises on respiratory functions, functional capacity and quality of life in vehicle spray painters

Background/aims Workers engaged in vehicle spray painting are at a risk of developing respiratory problems because of the solvents in the spray paints. Changes in respiratory functions and functional capacities caused by spray painting can be improved with respiratory exercises. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of respiratory exercises on the respiratory functions, functional capacity and quality of life in vehicle spray painters. Methods A total of 70 volunteers with similar characteristics participated in the study. The groups were divided into two groups randomly (35 study group, 35 control group). Respiratory functions (value of forced expiratory volume percentage in 1 second [FEV1]), forced vital capacity percentage [FVC], FEV1/FVC percentage, peak expiratory flow percentage [PEF (%)] and maximum voluntary ventilation percentage [MVV (%)]), functional capacity (6-Minute Walk Test) and quality of life (Short Form Health Survey [SF-36]) were evaluated. The study group undertook supervised breathing exercises 3 days a week for 6 weeks. The same exercises were given to the control group as a home programme. Home programmes were followed up by telephone calls. Evaluations were performed again after 6 weeks. Results In the study group, FEV1 (%) increased more than in the control group (P<0.05). The increase in PEF (%) was similar in both groups (P>0.05). In the study group, FEV1/FVC (%) and MVV (%) were significantly different before and after the intervention (P<0.05), but there was no difference in the control group (P>0.05). There was a greater increase in the study group than in the control group (P<0.05). 6-Minute Walk Test distance (m) before and after the intervention in both groups were similar (P>0.05). Before and after the intervention, a significant difference was found in the vitality and the social function domains of the SF-36 in the study group. In the comparisons of groups, a significant difference was found in the study group in the role-emotional, social function and bodily pain domains of the SF-36 after the intervention (P<0.05). Conclusions Breathing exercises can be recommended for vehicle spray painters to avoid an increase in respiratory resistance and to improve their quality of life.

Gas-to-aqueous Phase Transfer for Three Paint Solvents Injected into an Abiotic, Industrial Biotrickling Filter Measured with a Flame Ionization Detector

This is a knowledge contribution to the unsatisfactory biodegradation problem, when biotrickling filters are purifying mixed paint solvents. A biotrickling filter manufacturer reported low biodegradation rates during the purification of a hydrocarbon pollutant mix from an industrial paint spraying floor. From a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer analysis both hydrophilic and hydrophobic solvents were found in the polluted air. It is known that biodegradation is retarded, if the pollutant does not transfer from gas to liquid into the biofilm and it was therefore suspected that hydrophobic pollutants do not sufficiently migrate into the water/biofilm. To test this hypothesis, pure, rather than mixed pollutants, were injected into the abiotic biotrickling filter. When hydrophobic paint solvent (xylene) was sprayed into the biotrickling filter, the solvent load at the outlet of the filter was almost as high as at the inlet. But when pure, hydrophilic paint solvent (PGME) was sprayed into the abiotic biotrickling filter, the solvent load measured at the outlet of the filter was zero, indicating complete dissolution into the circulation water. Carbon/solvent loads at the filter outlet and inlet were measured with a portable flame ionization detector instrument. The experiment confirms that the hydrophobic solvent does not migrate into the liquid phase. This poor mass transfer of hydrophobic solvents is likely to be the reason for the low biodegradation rate. The result is highly relevant to the paint spraying industry and manufacturers of exhaust gas treatment equipment alike, who spend millions in non-sustainable incineration of exhaust gases.