Solvent-extracted Soybean Meal Research Articles

Milk production responses, rumen fermentation, and blood metabolites of dairy cows fed increasing concentrations of forage rape (Brassica napus ssp. Biennis)

The aim of this study was to determine animal performance, rumen fermentation, and health-related blood metabolites of dairy cows in mid lactation fed with increasing levels (30 and 45%) of forage rape (FR) in the diet. Twelve pregnant multiparous lactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 dietary treatments in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design. The experiment was divided into three 21-d periods. For the control diet, 13.0 kg (dry matter, DM) of grass silage, 3.0 kg DM of commercial concentrate, 2.7 kg of DM cold-pressed extracted canola meal, and 0.45 kg DM of solvent-extracted soybean meal were offered daily. For the other two treatments, 30 and 45% of the DM from silage, canola meal, and commercial concentrate were replaced in equal proportions with FR. Data were analyzed individually using linear and quadratic orthogonal polynomials. Ingestive behavior was altered by the inclusion of FR. We observed a linear increase in eating time at the expense of rumination time. Nevertheless, total DM intake was not affected by dietary treatments, averaging 19.5 ± 0.24 kg of DM/d. Milk yield increased linearly with increasing concentration of FR in the diet. Thus, feed efficiency of cows (kg of milk/kg of DM intake) increased linearly with the percentage of FR in the diet. Inclusion of FR in the diet had no effect on milk composition or milk sensory characteristics. Mean rumen pH of cows decreased linearly from the control to the 45% FR diet; however, dietary treatments had no effect on the daily amount of time that rumen pH was below 5.8 (252 ± 71.4), indicating no risk of subacute ruminal acidosis. Concentrations of total volatile fatty acids in the rumen and molar proportions of acetate and butyrate were increased with FR inclusion, whereas the proportion of propionate was linearly reduced. Excretion of uric acid and total purine derivatives tended to be greater for cows fed FR, which resulted in a trend toward a linear increase in estimated microbial N flow. However, N use efficiency was not affected by FR inclusion. Although differences for some hematological measures (increased white blood cell and neutrophils counts) and a quadratic response for glutamate dehydrogenase for cows fed FR in the diet (decreased with inclusion of 30% and increased with 45% in the diet) were observed, all values were within appropriate ranges for dairy cows. These results indicated that including FR to dairy cow diets, up to 45% of diet DM, improved milk production due to changes in volatile fatty acids and predicted microbial N flow and had no negative effects on dairy cow health or sensory characteristics of milk.

Incorporation of defatted microalgal biomass (Tetraselmis sp. CTP4) at the expense of soybean meal as a feed ingredient for juvenile gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)

The forecasted growth of the aquaculture sector requires the use of novel and sustainable ingredients in aquaculture feeds. A study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of a 10% incorporation of defatted microalgal biomass (DMB) of Tetraselmis sp. CTP4, used at the expense of dehulled solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM), on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility and physiological response to confinement stress in gilthead seabream juveniles. The trial comprised two dietary treatments: a control diet (CTRL) with relatively high levels of marine-derived proteins and 10% SBM; and a test diet (DMB10) with the incorporation of 10% DMB at the expense of SBM, while maintaining a fair constancy of all other ingredients. Triplicate groups of 30 fish, with a mean initial body weight of 6.0 ± 0.2 g were fed the experimental diets for 61 days. At the end of the trial, fish tripled their initial body weight, but the overall growth performance criteria (final body weight, daily growth index, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio), whole-body composition and nutrient retention were not significantly affected by the dietary treatments (p > 0.05). The DMB10 diet showed a significantly higher apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) of dry matter, energy and phosphorus (p < 0.05). When measured as an isolated feed ingredient, the DMB had an ADC of protein, fat, energy and phosphorus of 87.9, 85.3, 75.5 and 41.4%, respectively. After an acute confinement stress test, fish fed with DMB10 diet displayed a significantly lower plasma cortisol response (120 ± 23 ng/mL) than those fed with the control diet (160 ± 33 ng/mL) (p < 0.05). Overall results showed that DMB, issued from biorefinery processes, could potentially spare the use of soybean meal in aquaculture feeds, contributing towards a reduction of the current protein deficit in the European market.

Milk production responses and rumen fermentation of dairy cows supplemented with summer brassicas

Forage brassicas, such as summer turnip (ST; Brassica rapa) and forage rape (FR; Brassica napus), are used as supplementary crops during summer. However, studies with lactating dairy cows fed these forages are limited and report inconsistent productive responses. The aim of this study was to determine dry matter intake, rumen fermentation and milk production responses of dairy cows in mid-lactation supplemented with and without summer (‘ST’ or ‘FR’) brassicas. Twelve multiparous lactating dairy cows were randomly allocated to three dietary treatments in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design balanced for residual effects over three 21-day periods. The control diet consisted of 16.2 kg DM of grass silage, 2.25 kg DM of commercial concentrate and 2.25 kg DM solvent-extracted soybean meal. For the other two dietary treatments, 25% of the amounts of silage and concentrates were replaced with FR or ST. The inclusion of forage brassicas had no effects on milk production (24.2 kg cow/day average) and composition (average milk fat and protein 43.2 and 33.6 g/l, respectively). Dry matter intake was 0.98 kg and 1.12 kg lower for cows supplemented with FR and ST, respectively, resulting in a greater feed conversion efficiency (1.35 kg milk/kg DM for ST and FR v. 1.27 kg milk/kg DM for the control diet). Intraruminal pH was lower for cows supplemented with ST compared to the control diet; however, it did not decrease below pH 5.8 at any time of the day. After feeding, the concentrations of total short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in rumen contents increased with ST supplementation compared to the control diet. Inclusion of FR in the diet increased the molar proportion of acetate (68.5 mmol/100 mmol) in total SCFA at the expense of propionate, measured 6 h after feeding of the forage. The molar proportion of butyric acid was greater with ST and FR supplementation (13.1 and 12 mmol/100 mmol, respectively) than in control cows. The estimated microbial nitrogen (N) flow was 89.1 g/day greater when supplementing FR compared to the control diet. Based on the haematological measures, the inclusion of summer brassica forages did not affect the health status of the animals. These results indicate that mid-lactation dairy cows fed brassicas are able to maintain production despite the reduced intake, probably due to improved rumen fermentation and therefore nutrient utilization.

Effects of replacing soybean meal with canola meal for lactating dairy cows fed 3 different ratios of alfalfa to corn silage

Previous research has demonstrated that feeding canola meal (CM) improves milk production and N utilization by lactating dairy cows when replacing solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM). The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether CM would improve milk yield and components and N utilization, compared with SBM, at different ratios of alfalfa silage (AS) to corn silage (CS) fed to lactating dairy cows. Twenty-four multiparous Holstein cows averaging, at the beginning of the study (mean ± SD), 2.8 ± 0.9 parity, 684 ± 56 kg of BW, 102 ± 41 DIM, and 49 ± 4 kg milk/d, and 24 primiparous cows averaging (mean ± SD) 565 ± 46 kg of BW, 123 ± 30 DIM, and 40 ± 4 kg milk/d were blocked by parity and DIM. A cyclic changeover design with 4 replications of 2 blocks of treatments of 6 cows was used in an arrangement with 4 28-d periods. Dietary treatments were arranged in a 3 × 2 factorial design of 3 proportions of AS to CS as forage source (HAS = high AS, 50% AS to 10% CS; MAS = medium AS, 30% AS to 30% CS; LAS = low AS, 10% AS to 50% CS) and 2 protein supplements (CM vs. SBM). Diets were formulated to contain [dry matter (DM) basis]: 60% forage, 8 to 15% high-moisture corn, 2 to 5% soy hulls, 1.3% mineral-vitamin premix, 16% crude protein, and 31 to 33% NDF. Data from the last 2 weeks of each period were used to compute mean milk yield and composition, and efficiencies of feed conversion, for each cow in each period. Data for the other variables were collected during the last week of each period. All data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Regardless of the forage source, replacing SBM with CM improved yields of milk, milk protein, and solids-not-fat. Moreover, milk urea nitrogen concentration and urinary excretion of total N (g/d) and urea N (% of total urinary N) decreased when CM replaced SBM. An interaction effect occurred between forage source and protein supplements for apparent total-tract digestibility, and, overall, this effect was due to small differences in ingredient and chemical compositions of the diets. In addition, these differences had a minor effect on cow performance. Yields of milk and milk components were greatest for cows fed 50% CS, intermediate for 30% CS, and lowest for 10% CS, indicating that, under the conditions of the present study, cows fed 50% CS in the diet (DM basis) had greater production compared with those fed 50% AS.

PSI-34 The Impact of Varying Protein Sources on Feedlot Goat Fecal Microbiome

Abstract The effect of protein sources with different RUP values on feedlot goat fecal microbiome has not been studied. This experiment evaluated the impact of varying protein sources on feedlot goat fecal microbiome. Fourty-five Boer-influenced goats (23.53 kg ± 1.07; approximately 75 d of age) were blocked by body weight and randomly allocated to 1 of 3 treatment diets (15 goats/treatment) with ad libitum feed and water for 42 d. Diets were formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous, with varying primary protein source: 1) 18.7% solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM), 2) 22.0% expelled soybean meal (SoyPlus), or 3) 34.4% distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS). On d 42, fecal pellets were collected from each goat and stored at -80°C until microbiome sequencing. Samples underwent PCR amplification of the V4 region of the 16S gene and sequencing on Illumina HiSeq 2500 (Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA) by a commercial lab (MR DNA, Shallowater, TX). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with Turkey’s test for post hoc comparisons. Beta and alpha diversity were analyzed using Qiime with Kruskal-Wallis pairwise comparisons and ANOSIM. Genera, with individual abundance greater than 1%, that were higher (P ≤ 0.05) in SBM-fed goats compared to goats fed DDGS and SoyPlus include Clostridium, Paludibacter, Tannerella, and Methanobrevibacter. At the phylum level, Bacteroidetes was greater in SBM-fed goats compared to DDGS-fed goats (P = 0.04) and Euryarchaeota was more abundant in goats fed SBM compared to DDGS (P = 0.003) and SoyPlus (P = 0.0001). Protein source did not affect β-diversity (r ≈ 0) or α-diversity (P &amp;gt; 0.10). In summary, altering protein source in finishing goat diets created shifts in some phyla and genera, however the diversity within and between microbial communities across treatments were uninfluenced.

Production responses to diets supplemented with soybean meal, expeller soybean meal, or dry-extruded cottonseed cake by lactating dairy cows

ABSTRACT Objective The objective of this trial was to evaluate the performance of lactating cows fed diets in which cottonseed cake (CSC) completely replaced either solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM) or expeller SBM (ESM) to evaluate value of CSC as either source of ruminal degradable or undegradable protein supplement. Materials and Methods Forty-eight mid-lactation Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block trial with a 3-wk standardization period followed by an 8-wk experimental period. Intake and production were monitored throughout the trial. The CSC was produced by dry extruding whole cottonseed at 121 to 149°C for 12 to 20 s. The resulting CSC contained approximately 33% CP with 45% ruminally degradable protein and 55% ruminally undegradable protein (DM basis). Treatments included (1) control diet supplemented with SBM and ESM (CONT), (2) CSC substituted for SBM (CSRDP), and (3) CSC substituted for ESM (CSRUP). Results and Discussion No differences were observed in DMI; milk yield; ECM yield; or percentage or yield of milk fat, lactose, or solids not-fat among treatments. No differences were observed in yield of milk protein, but milk protein percentage was less for CSRDP compared with CONT but not different from CSRUP. Milk urea nitrogen concentrations were less for CSRDP compared with CONT and CSRUP: 8.56, 7.58, and 9.27 mg/dL for CONT, CSRDP, and CSRUP, respectively. No differences were observed in change of BW or BCS during the trial among treatments. Implications and Applications Results of this trial indicate that the CSC can be substituted for SBM or ESM without affecting intake or milk yield and composition. The lower MUN observed for CSRDP suggests that substituting the CSC for SBM may have limited degradable N.

Production effects of feeding extruded soybean meal to early-lactation dairy cows

The objective of this experiment was to evaluate productive and reproductive effects of replacing solvent-extracted soybean meal (SSBM) with extruded soybean meal (ESBM) in a total mixed ration for early-lactation dairy cows. Thirty-four Holstein cows (12 primiparous and 22 multiparous) were used in a randomized complete block design experiment with 17 cows per treatment. Feeding was ad libitum for 5 to 10% refusals. A fresh-cow diet was fed the first 21 d in milk followed by a lactation diet from 22 to 60 d in milk. Milk and dry matter intake data were collected throughout the experiment, and samples were collected for blood chemistry and amino acid profile, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen utilization, and enteric methane emission using the GreenFeed system (C-Lock Inc., Rapid City, SD). Dry matter intake, milk yield, and feed efficiency were not different between SSBM and ESBM. Energy-corrected milk yield and efficiency were also not different between diets. Diet had no effect on milk composition, except that milk true protein yield was decreased by ESBM. Enteric methane emission, yield, and intensity were not different between SSBM and ESBM. Because of its greater fat content, ESBM triggered expected changes in milk fatty acid (FA) profile: decreased sum of C16, saturated, and odd- and branched-chain FA and increased sum of preformed FA, polyunsaturated, and trans FA. The ESBM diet increased or tended to increase some essential amino acids in plasma. In this study, ESBM did not affect dry matter intake and did not improve lactational performance or onset of ovarian function in early-lactation dairy cows, and it decreased milk protein yield, possibly due to greater unsaturated FA intake compared with SSBM.

Techno-Economic Analysis of Extruding-Expelling of Soybeans to Produce Oil and Meal

Mechanical expelling (pressing) is a common and developed technique used to separate soybean oil from soybean protein and fiber. Due to the relatively higher oil content in the expelled meal compared to solvent-extracted soybean meal, the mechanical process is often used for specific purposes in industry, such as targeted livestock feed applications. For improving oil recovery and profits, two-stage mechanical process combining extrusion before the expelling process has been introduced and adapted by industrial applications. To examine the viability of this improved two-stage extruding-expelling process, techno-economic analysis was performed by using SuperPro Designer for simulation of the soybean extruding-expelling process. Soybean oil yield increases to over 70% compared to the conventional single-step expelling process with 60%. Soybean oil and soybean meal contributed about 25% and 75% of total revenues, respectively. Through fluctuations in economic conditions, soybean meal plays an important role in earning profits, making the whole mechanical process profitable. According to the sensitivity analysis, the sale of soybean meal is one of the driving forces for the mechanical expelling process, especially in large industrial scales.

Energy and carbon footprints of chicken and pork from intensive production systems in Argentina

Due to the heterogeneity and complexity of food systems, there is a need to increase the knowledge on environmental impacts of regional productions by performing studies in a transparent manner, so that researchers could compare and accurately adapt such data to assess mitigation strategies. With the exception of beef, chicken and pork are the most consumed meats in Argentina and their consumption is expected to continuing increasing. However, despite the growing importance of chicken and pork industry, no studies on environmental impact of these products have been conducted to date in this country. Performing a life cycle inventory with data derived from government statistical publications, academia and communications with industry, the present study aims to investigate the energy and carbon footprints per ton of live weight (LW) of chickens and pigs from intensive production systems at farm gate in Argentina. In addition, we discussed in detail the effects on energy and carbon footprints of two animal diets which comprise different soybean by-products commonly used in animal husbandry, namely expeller-extruded soybean meal and solvent-extracted soybean meal and oil. We found that the energy and carbon footprint at farm gate for chicken was 13.6–15.1 GJ/ton LW and 2.03–2.22 ton CO2-eq/ton LW, for pigs in hoop systems 23.2–24.0 GJ/ton LW and 5.14–5.17 ton CO2-eq/ton LW, and for pigs in confinement systems 23.6–24.2 GJ/ton LW and 6.06–6.45 ton CO2-eq/ton LW, respectively. The choice of expeller-extruded soybean meal or solvent-extracted soybean meal and oil as feed ingredients showed small differences on the energy and carbon footprints of chickens and pigs.

Effects of soybean meal and high-protein sunflower meal on growth performance, feed utilization, gut health and gene expression in Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus ) at the grow-out stage

The effects of two plant ingredients (solvent-extracted soybean meal [SBM] and high-protein sunflower meal [HPSFM]) and three inclusion levels (0 percent, practical diet containing 25 percent fish meal; 12.5 percent; and 25 percent) of these ingredients were investigated on the growth, feed utilization, gut histology and gene expression in the distal intestine of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (average initial weight, 330.1 ± 8.9 g per fish). Feeding experimental diets for 12 weeks resulted in no difference between HPSFM diets in body weight gain (BWG), thermal-unit growth coefficient (TGC), feed efficiency (FE), feed intake (FI) or pro-inflammatory mRNA expression (PIE) with increasing dietary inclusion and between SBM FE, FI and PIE. Differences in quadratic contrasts were observed for nitrogen deposition rate (NDR) and nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE) (p < .05), whereby HPSFM diets elicited the strongest positive response. SBM resulted in linear reduction in BWG, TGC and distal intestine simple fold length and width measurements (p < .05) with stepwise increases in dietary inclusion, whereas dietary HPSFM had no effect. Histological observations of individual villi indicated several symptoms of non-infectious subacute gastrointestinal enteritis in tanks fed SBM, many of which were not present in tanks fed HPSFM. The dietary HPSFM seems to be more adequate to replace fishmeal in Arctic charr diet than SBM, when fed at a level of up to 25 percent at the grow-out stage.

Soybean meal-induced enteritis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) but not in pink salmon (O. gorbuscha)

To improve sustainability in the aquaculture industry plant meals are increasingly used to replace fish meal in fish feed. Solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM) is an attractive protein source for fish feed because of its high protein content, favorable amino acid profile, and low cost. In Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), SBM at low levels causes soybean meal-induced enteritis (SBMIE). Few studies have been done with SBM in Pacific salmon, and none of those have included intestinal inflammation analysis. To gain more insight into salmonid responses to SBM, we assessed and compared the effects of SBM on intestinal morphology, inflammation and microbiome composition of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).Atlantic, Chinook and pink salmon were fed for three weeks on a diet with 20% inclusion of SBM, or a control diet with fish meal. After one week on the SBM diet, Atlantic and Chinook salmon showed increased submucosa thickness in the distal intestine compared to the fish fed on the fishmeal diet. Intestinal inflammation in these species increased over time, with a further increase in submucosa thickness coincident with an infiltration of eosinophilic granular and mononuclear leucocytes. After 3weeks on the SBM diet, intestinal inflammation was most severe in Chinook salmon. In contrast, pink salmon only showed a slight increase in submucosa thickness after three weeks on the SBM diet, and no significant increase in inflammatory cell infiltrate. Sequence-based analysis of the intestinal microbiome showed a significant difference in overall microbiome composition between species, but did not show an effect of the SBM diet on microbiome diversity or composition in any of the three salmon species. In conclusion, SBM-fed Chinook salmon were more susceptible to SBMIE than Atlantic salmon whereas pink salmon were not susceptible to SBMIE at the levels of SBM tested.

Effects of soybean and sunflower meals on the growth, feed utilization, and gene expression in two Canadian strains of juvenile Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus)

The effects of graded levels (0–20% total dietary inclusion) of commercial, solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM) and expeller sunflower meal (SFM) were investigated on growth, nutrient utilization, and pro-inflammatory gene expression in the distal intestine and spleen of two commercial Canadian strains (Strain 1 and Strain 2) of Arctic charr. Five experimental diets with increasing inclusion of SBM or SFM were fed for 84days to two Canadian strains of Arctic charr (initial body weight=9g/fish). Feeding these diets resulted in no differences in growth rate (measured as final weight or thermal-unit growth coefficient, TGC) in the two strains. Increased inclusion level of plant proteins negatively affected FE (P<0.0001) with effects most commonly observed in groups fed SBM-based diets. The effect of the ingredient was significant (P<0.05) on PXR gene expression in the distal intestine; PXR expression was higher with SBM than with SFM. The effect of the inclusion level of plant ingredients was significant (P<0.05) on IL-Iβ gene expression in the spleen. Feed intake, FE, NRE, ERE, whole body crude protein, lipid, gross energy, and organo-somatic indices were significantly (P<0.05) affected by genetic strain examined. Strain 2 exhibited higher FE and carcass crude protein content and lower carcass lipid content. The difference in FE, protein and lipid content for the 2 genetic strains of charr may indicate variations in efficiency for protein and lipid utilization, with a potential protein-sparing effect of dietary lipid noted in Strain 2.

Comparison of amino acid digestibility in full-fat soybean, two soybean meals, and peanut flour between broiler chickens and growing pigs.

The aim of this study was to determine the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and AA in full-fat soybean (FFSB), solvent-extracted soybean meal containing 430 g/kg CP (SBM-43), solvent-extracted soybean meal containing 470 g/kg CP (SBM-47), and peanut flour (PNF) fed to broiler chickens and pigs and to compare the digestibility of CP and AA between broiler chickens and pigs. Four diets were prepared to contain FFSB, SBM-43, SBM-47, and PNF as the sole source of N. A N-free diet was formulated to estimate the basal ileal endogenous losses of CP and AA for broiler chickens and pigs. In Exp. 1, a total of four hundred sixteen 21-d-old male broiler chickens (922.1 ± 79.9 g initial BW) were assigned to 5 experimental diets in a randomized complete block design with BW as a blocking factor. After 5 d of adaptation, ileal digesta samples were collected after birds were euthanized by CO asphyxiation. In Exp. 2, twenty barrows (62.0 ± 6.9 kg initial BW) surgically fitted with T-cannulas at the distal ileum were allotted to 5 experimental diets with 2 consecutive 7-d experimental periods. After 5 d of adaptation, ileal digesta samples were collected at d 6 and 7. For statistical analysis, treatments were considered a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement with effects of species and experimental diets (Exp. 1 vs. Exp. 2). There were no interactions between species and diets for the digestibility of CP and AA except for Cys ( < 0.01). The AID of CP and indispensable AA in pigs were greater ( < 0.01) than in broiler chickens. In both broiler chickens and pigs, the AID of CP and indispensable AA in SBM-47 were greater ( < 0.05) than in FFSB, and the AID of Lys in PNF was the least ( < 0.05) among ingredients. The SID of CP and indispensable AA in pigs were greater ( < 0.05) than in broiler chickens except for Trp. In both broiler chickens and pigs, the SID of Lys in PNF was the least ( < 0.05) among ingredients. In broiler chickens, the SID of CP, Ile, Leu, Thr, Trp, and Val in FFSB were less ( < 0.05) than that in SBM-43, SBM-47, and PNF. In pigs, the SID of Arg, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe, and Val in FFSB were less ( < 0.05) than in SBM-43, SBM-47, and PNF. In conclusion, the digestibility of CP and most AA were less in broiler chickens than in pigs, but the pattern of differences in the AA digestibility among ingredients was similar between broiler chickens and pigs.

Effects of replacing soybean meal with canola meal differing in rumen-undegradable protein content on ruminal fermentation and gas production kinetics using 2 in vitro systems

Previous research indicated that there were significant differences in rumen-undegradable protein (RUP) among canola meals (CM), which could influence the nutritional value of CM. The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate the effects of feeding CM with different RUP contents on ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestion, and microbial growth using a dual-flow continuous culture system (experiment 1) and (2) evaluate ruminal gas production kinetics, in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility, and methane (CH4) production of soybean meal (SBM) and CM with low or high RUP in the diet or as a sole ingredient using a gas production system (experiments 2 and 3). In experiment 1, diets were randomly assigned to 6 fermentors in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square. The only ingredient that differed among diets was the protein supplement. The treatments were (1) solvent-extracted SBM, (2) low-RUP solvent-extracted CM (38% RUP as a percentage of crude protein), and (3) high-RUP solvent-extracted CM (50% RUP). Diets were prepared as 3 concentrate mixtures that were combined with 25% orchardgrass hay and 15% wheat straw (dry matter basis). Experiments 2 and 3 had the same design with 24 bottles incubated 3 times for 48 h each. During the 48-h incubation, the cumulative pressure was recorded to determine gas production kinetics, in vitro OM digestibility, and CH4 production. In experiment 1, N flow (g/d), efficiency of N use, efficiency of bacterial N synthesis, total volatile fatty acids (mM), and molar proportion of acetate, propionate, and isobutyrate were not affected by treatments. There were tendencies for a decrease in ruminal NH3-N and an increase in molar proportion of butyrate for the SBM diet compared with both CM diets. The molar proportion of valerate was greater in both CM diets, whereas the molar proportion of isovalerate and total branched-chain volatile fatty acids was lower for the CM diets compared with the SBM diet. In experiments 2 and 3, the SBM diet had a greater gas pool size than both CM diets. The SBM diet increased in vitro OM digestibility; however, it also tended to increase CH4 production (mM and g/kg of DM) compared with both CM diets. Based on the results of this study, CM with RUP varying from 38 to 50% of crude protein does not affect ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestion, and microbial growth when CM is included at up to 34% of the diet.

Twin- or single-screw extrusion of raw soybeans and preconditioned soybean meal and corn as individual ingredients or as corn-soybean product blends in diets for weanling swine.

Two 28-d experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of extrusion of ground yellow corn, solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM), and cracked whole soybeans (CWS) individually or as corn-soybean product blends on growth performance of weanling pigs. For Exp. 1, ground corn, SBM, and the corn-SBM blend were extruded at 137.5°C, 131.5°C, and 135.0°C, respectively, in a twin-screw extruder. Transit time was 60 s. Water was injected at 125 gmin during extrusion. The 5 treatments were the corn-SBM control diet and the diets with extruded (EX) corn + SBM, EX-SBM + corn, EX-corn + EX-SBM, and the EX-blend of corn-SBM. Ninety crossbred pigs with an initial average BW of 5.98 kg were allotted to 9 treatment replications with a barrow and gilt per pen. For Exp. 2, ground corn was preconditioned with water (10.0% of corn weight), and SBM was preconditioned with water and soybean oil (each at 20.0% of SBM weight) before extrusion. Raw CWS were not preconditioned. The corn, SBM, CWS, corn-SBM blend, and corn-CWS blend were extruded at 113.0°C, 132.0°C, 132.0°C, 88.0°C, and 102°C, respectively, with a single-screw extruder. Transit time was 30 s. The 8 isocaloric treatments were the corn-SBM control diet and the diets with EX-corn + SBM, EX-SBM + corn, EX-corn + EX-SBM, the EX-blend of corn-SBM, EX-CWS + corn, EX-CWS + EX-corn, and the EX-blend of corn-CWS. A total of 296 crossbred pigs with an initial average BW of 6.56 kg were allotted to 10 treatment replications. Sex and pigs per pen (3 or 4) were equalized within replication. Results for both experiments indicate that single- or twin-screw extrusion of ground corn or SBM as individual ingredients or as corn-SBM blends in diets for weanling pigs did not improve 28-d growth performance. However, for Exp. 2 weanling pigs fed the diets with EX-CWS + corn and EX-CWS + EX-corn had greater ( < 0.01) ADG and G:F, respectively, than pigs fed the corn-SBM control diet. The extrusion temperature of 102°C for the corn-CWS blend did not inactivate adequate protease inhibitors in CWS, and pigs fed that diet had poor growth performance. In conclusion, single-screw extrusion of CWS (132°C for 30 s) in diets for weanling pigs improved growth performance compared with pigs fed the corn-SBM control diet. However, twin- or single-screw extrusion of ground yellow corn or solvent-extracted SBM as individual ingredients or as corn-SBM blends in diets for weanling pigs did not improve growth performance compared with pigs fed the corn-SBM control diets.

Growth, enzymatic glutathione peroxidase activity and biochemical status of juvenile barramundi (Lates calcarifer) fed dietary fermented soybean meal and organic selenium

Solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM) was fermented using baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae at 30°C for 5days. Four isonitrogenous and isocaloric diets containing 75% SBM protein, either fermented or non-fermented (SBM and FSBM), and supplemented or not with organic Se (OS) (SBMOS and FSBMOS), were fed to triplicate groups of juvenile barramundi (Lates calcarifer) (initial weight of 5g) for 75days. A fishmeal (FM)-based diet formulated for juvenile barramundi was used as a reference diet. The growth of fish was significantly affected by either the interaction of SBM type or by the OS level. In fish fed diets supplemented with OS (SBMOS and FSBMOS), final weight (FW), specific growth rate (SGR) and weight gain (WG) were higher in fish fed the fermented SBM (FSBMOS) than in those fed the non-fermented SBM (SBMOS). The apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of protein was higher in the fish fed the fermented SBM, either supplemented or unsupplemented with OS. However, there were no significant differences in the ADC of dry matter (DM) and lipids among the tested diets and in comparison to the reference diet. The haematocrit and leucocrit of fish fed the FSBMOS diet were lower than those of fish fed the FM diet. Furthermore, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity was significantly influenced by OS supplementation in the experimental diets; GPx activity was greater in the fish fed diets supplemented with OS. Creatinine kinase (CK) of all groups of fish was higher than the CK of those fed the reference diet. These results suggest that with a proper nutritional level, OS supplementation may act as an important factor in enzymatic GPx activity and in the haematology and blood biochemistry status of juvenile barramundi fed fermented SBM-based diets, encouraging improvement of the overall growth performance.

Effect of anti-nutritional factors of oilseed co-products on feed intake of pigs and poultry

Soybean, canola, camelina and flaxseed co-products from the oilseed industry are used to formulate pig and poultry feeds. However, these co-products contain various anti-nutritional factors (ANF). The major ANF in soybean and potentially co-products is trypsin inhibitor (TI). Pigs and poultry can tolerate TI levels up to 3.00 and 4.00TIU/mg in the diet, respectively. Solvent-extracted soybean meal has low TI activity (<14.0TIU/mg); most TI is destroyed during the desolventising-toasting stage of oil extraction. Thus, inclusion of soybean meal in diets for pigs and poultry does not affect feed intake and nutrient utilization. However, soybean or expeller-pressed soybean co-products can contain considerable amounts of TI (>50.0TIU/mg), implying that the raw soybean or expeller-pressed soybean co-products should be sufficiently heated to inactivate most of the TI before feeding. The major ANF in canola co-products are glucosinolates. Poultry and pigs can tolerate up to 2.00 and 2.50μmol/g of glucosinolates in their diets. Total glucosinolate content in most canola co-products is moderate (<10μmol/g). Thus, while co-products from modern canola cultivars do not affect feed intake, dietary inclusion of original canola co-products (with total glucosinolate content of ≤35μmol/g) reduced feed intake of grow-finish pigs by 80g/day and of broiler chickens in the starter phase by 4g/day. Glucosinolates and TI are the major ANF in camelina co-products. In camelina co-products, total glucosinolate content ranged from 34.4 to 36.3μmol/g and TI activity from 12 to 28TIU/mg. Camelina co-products are not solvent-extracted and thus have high TI activity. Dietary inclusion of camelina co-products reduced feed intake of broiler chickens in the starter phase by 3.4g/day. Cyanogenic glucosides are the major ANF in flaxseed co-products. Flaxseed meal contained 127mg cyanogenic glucoside/kg. Dietary inclusion of flaxseed meal reduced feed intake by poultry by 3.4g/day. In conclusion, soybean, canola, camelina and flaxseed co-products contain various ANF that reduce feed intake by pigs and poultry.

Short communication: Substituting dry distillers grains with solubles and rumen-protected amino acids for soybean meal in late-lactation cows’ diets based on corn silage or ryegrass silage

Excess protein in dairy cattle diets increases production costs and contributes to environmental pollution. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of feeding dry distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) supplemented with rumen-protected Lys and Met in place of solvent-extracted soybean meal on the performance of late-lactation cows. Two experiments were carried out, with each using 24 late-lactating dairy cows distributed among 4 pens. In trial 1, corn silage was the main forage source. Control (HP1) total mixed ration (TMR) contained 16.3% crude protein (CP) with soybean meal as the main protein source. Treatment TMR (LP1) had 13.7% CP when soybean meal was replaced with DDGS and rumen-protected Lys and Met. Forage in trial 2 was ryegrass silage; control TMR (HP2; 15.4% CP) contained soybean meal and rumen-protected Met, whereas treatment TMR (LP2; 13.8% CP) contained DDGS and rumen-protected Lys and Met. Trials were analyzed as crossover design using the MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary NC) with cow as sampling unit and pen as the experimental unit. Treatments were similar in dry matter intake (21.0 and 20.4kg/cow per day for HP1 and LP1, respectively) and milk yield (20.7 and 20.5kg/cow per day for HP1 and LP1, respectively) during trial 1. Milk composition was similar between treatments, averaging 4.22, 3.73, 4.54, and 9.15, respectively, for fat, protein, lactose, and solids nonfat. Milk urea nitrogen decreased from 17.2mg/dL for HP1 to 9.93mg/dL for LP1. In trial 2, no significant differences were observed for dry matter intake (21.4 and 20.9kg/cow per day for HP2 and LP2, respectively), milk yield (28.1 and 26.6kg/d for HP2 and LP2, respectively), fat yield (0.99 vs. 0.92kg/d for HP2 and LP2, respectively), protein yield (0.94 vs. 0.86kg/d for HP2 and LP2, respectively) and lactose yield (1.37 vs. 1.28 for HP2 and LP2, respectively). Milk urea nitrogen decreased from 9.88mg/dL with HP2 to 6.39mg/dL with the LP2 treatment. Milk N efficiency tended to be higher for LP treatments in trial 1, but not in trial 2. Low milk urea N suggested nitrogen losses to the environment may be lower when cows were fed diets based on DDGS in both trials. The studies indicated that DDGS with rumen-protected Lys and Met could substitute solvent-extracted soybean meal in low-protein corn silage- and ryegrass silage-based diets for late-lactation dairy cows averaging 20.6 or 27.4kg of milk/d, respectively.

Extruded soybean meal increased feed intake and milk production in dairy cows

The objective of this study was to assess the effects of 2 extruded soybean meals (ESBM) processed at 2 extruder temperatures, 149°C (LTM) and 171°C (HTM), on performance, nutrient digestibility, milk fatty acid and plasma amino acid profiles, and rumen fermentation in lactating dairy cows. Nine multiparous Holstein cows were included in a replicated 3×3 Latin square design experiment with three 28-d periods. The control diet contained 13% solvent-extracted soybean meal (SSBM; 53.5% crude protein with 74.1% ruminal degradability and 1.8% fat), which was replaced with equivalent amount (dry matter basis) of LTM (46.8%, 59.8%, and 10.0%) or HTM (46.9%, 41.1%, and 10.9%, respectively) ESBM in the 2 experimental diets (LTM and HTM, respectively). The diets met or exceeded the nutrient requirements of the cows for net energy of lactation and metabolizable protein. The 2 ESBM diets increased dry matter intake and milk yield compared with SSBM. Feed efficiency and milk composition were not affected by treatment. Milk protein yield tended to be increased by ESBM compared with SSBM. Milk urea N and urinary urea N excretions were increased by the ESBM diets compared with SSBM. Concentration of fatty acids with chain length of up to C17 and total saturated fatty acids in milk fat were generally decreased and that of C18 and total mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids was increased by the ESBM diets compared with SSBM. Blood plasma concentrations of His, Leu, and Val were increased by HTM compared with LTM and SSBM. Plasma concentration of Met was decreased, whereas that of carnosine was increased by the ESBM diets. Treatments had no effect on rumen fermentation, but the proportion of Fibrobacter spp. in whole ruminal contents was increased by HTM compared with SSBM and LTM. Overall, data from this crossover experiment suggest that substituting SSBM with ESBM in the diet has a positive effect on feed intake and milk yield in dairy cows.

Evaluation of apparent digestibility coefficients of individual feed ingredients in spotted rose snapperLutjanus guttatus(Steindachner, 1869)

Apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) for dry matter, crude protein, energy and essential amino acids for five commonly used feed ingredients were determined for juvenile spotted rose snapper Lutjanus guttatus (average body weight 90.6 g). ADCs were determined using the stripping technique to collect faeces after fish were fed a reference diet and test diets composed of 700 g kg−1 reference diet and 300 g kg−1 test ingredient. Chromic oxide (Cr2O3) was used as an inert indicator. Ingredients tested included sardine fishmeal (FM), canola meal (CM), tuna by-products meal (TBM), poultry by-product meal pet grade (PBM-PG) and solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM). In general, all ingredients showed high digestibility values for all essential amino acids, although differences were detected among ingredients. ADC values for dry matter, protein and energy ranged 77.0–80.4%, 84.3–82.5% and 89–88.8%, respectively, for marine ingredient and land-based animal protein sources, and 75.0–74.2%, 81.5–80.9% and 87.4–86.8%, respectively, for the plant-based protein source. SBM, TBM and PBM-PG should be further evaluated in feeding trials as partial FM replacements in rose snapper L. guttatus diets. Knowledge of ADC values for these ingredients will allow feed producers to develop nutritionally balanced, low-cost feed formulations for this species.