Solid Fat Content Research Articles

Assessing the effectiveness of peanut diacylglycerol oil-ethylcellulose/monoglyceride-based oleogel in sponge cake as a margarine replacer

The aim of this research was to partially substitute margarine with peanut diacylglycerol oil-ethylcellulose/monoglyceride (DAG-EC/MG) oleogel and assess its effect on the texture of sponge cake. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry analysis showed that the carboxyl headgroups of MG could induce van der Waals forces in polar DAG oil, while the glycerol headgroups of MG could induce hydrogen bond interactions with EC in TAG oil. The oil binding capacity (OBC) indicated that all OBC values of DAG-based oleogels were above 95%, which was approximately 20% higher than that of TAG-based oleogels. The morphological analysis showed that the DAG-based oleogel exhibited thinner crystals than the TAG-based oleogel. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis demonstrated that the addition of MG could enhance the thermal resistance of DAG-based oleogels. Rheological analysis showed that MG with carboxyl headgroups tended to produce soft gels in polar DAG oil. The hardness of the DAG-based oleogel cake decreased by 88.54% from 20.42 to 2.34 N with the addition of MG, which indicated that MG compensated for the negative influence of EC on the hardness of the DAG-based oleogel cake. The sponge cake with 50% substitution by DAG-based oleogel exhibited satisfactory texture profiles. Additionally, no difference in the overall acceptability was observed between DAG-based oleogels commercial margarine-based cakes. Consequently, DAG-based oleogel cakes are promising bakery products that possess a solid fat content reduction of up to 50% while maintaining bakery product sensory properties.

Calculation of the solid fat content of vegetable fats using the Hildebrand equation

AbstractVegetable fats are complex multi‐component mixtures of triglycerides. Here, the solidification behavior of a few vegetable fats is calculated using the Hildebrand equation. This calculation assumes, in the liquid phase, ideal mixing of the different components, in combination with literature data about the temperatures and enthalpies of fusion of the individual triglycerides. It further assumes a decomposition of the triglyceride blend into binary blends dissolved in an inert solvent. The solid fat content is calculated as function of the temperature, for only all α and only β and only β' crystal modifications. The minor triglyceride components are explicitly included in the calculation. The calculated solid fat contents for cocoa butter, palm oil, inter‐esterified palm oil and palm kernel olein oil are compared to pNMR data, reported in the literature. The standard deviations between calculated and experimental solid fat content lie between 4% and 14%. Temperature ranges are found, in which specific crystal modifications match to the pNMR data for the solid fat content. These temperature ranges are found to be consistent with literature data obtained using x‐ray diffraction. As a by‐product, the calculation presented here, enables the construction of scenarios that describe which triglyceride solidifies in which temperature interval.

Kinetika Kristalisasi Campuran Minyak Sawit Bebas Asam Lemak Trans untuk Produksi Margarin

Non-trans-fat (NTF) margarine was produced by substituting partially-hydrogenated palm oil in margarine oil blend with fully-hydrogenated palm oil. Three types of NTF oil blends were used in this study. To obtain an NTF oil blend with similar physical properties to the reference oil blend, which contain partially-hydrogenated oil, the melting properties and crystallization kinetics were evaluated. The iodine value of raw material oil was measured, and the oil was mixed to form the margarine oil blends. Fatty acid composition (FAC) and solid fat content (SFC) of the oil blends were examined. Melting properties of the oil blends were determined based on SFC analysis, while crystallization kinetics were determined using Avrami model. The results showed that there was no trans fatty acids detected in the NTF oil blends. The rate of crystallization constant (k) of the Avrami index of reference oil and NTF-1 oil blend were 0.1413 ± 0.0047 and 0.1369 ± 0.0016 min-n, respectively, whilst their Avrami exponent (n) were 0.93 ± 0.02 and 0.94 ± 0.01, respectively. There was no significant difference on these Avrami indexes, and therefore NTF-1 oil blend could be selected as an alternative oil blend for margarine production.

Characterization and comparison of oleogels and emulgels prepared from Schizochytrium algal oil using monolaurin and MAG/DAG as gelators

AbstractOleogels and emulgels were developed with winterized algal oil from Schizochytrium spp. rich in ω‐3 fatty acids (FAs) to overcome physical limitations of using a highly unsaturated lipid source in food applications. Both gel types were developed using monolaurin or a combination of mono‐ and diacylglycerols (MAG/DAG) as the gelator at concentrations of 8%, 10%, or 12% (w/w) in oil or emulsion. A 30‐day oxidation study was conducted using peroxide value, p‐Anisidine value, and change in FA composition to measure the level of oxidation. Oleogel and emulgel samples exhibited a higher oxidative stability than bulk algal oil and oil‐in‐water emulsion as control groups, respectively. The 12% monolaurin oleogel outperformed others in oxidative stability, preventing oxidation of approximately 11.66% and 7.86% of EPA and DHA, respectively, compared to algal oil. Physical characteristics including thermal behavior, solid fat content (SFC), rheology, morphology, and polymorphism were studied. Results indicated that MAG/DAG oleogels and monolaurin emulgels were the most physically stable. The SFC of 12% MAG/DAG oleogel at 30°C was 10.27% whereas 12% monolaurin oleogel was only 4.51%. Both gel types developed with monolaurin and MAG/DAG could be used for different applications as they exhibited desirable qualities such as oxidative stability and improved physical characteristics.

Melting behaviour of cocoa butter substitutes synthesised by enzymatic glycerolysis of coconut oil and palm stearin blends

Cocoa Butter (CB) is a speciality fat required in various products, but its availability is limited and has adverse health effects. Therefore, an alternative to CB is needed. This study aimed to synthesise cocoa butter substitutes (CBS) rich in monolaurin by enzymatic glycerolysis of coconut oil (CNO) and palm stearin (PS) blends. The ratios of CNO to PS used were 7:3, 6:4, and 5:5 (w/w). Several characteristics related to the melting behaviour of CBS were analysed. The results showed that CBS contained monoacylglycerol (MAG) and diacylglycerol (DAG) about 55.89-57.28% and 34.27-39.57%, respectively, while MAG fraction contained monolaurin of 25.31-37.07%. CBS rich in monolaurin produced from the CNO-PS ratio of 6:4 had the slip melting point and the melting point similar to CB, namely, 34.87±0.08°C and 36.75±0.14°C, respectively. In addition, the melting profile and solid fat content (SFC) were also comparable to CB but slightly lower than CB. The obtained CBS had 5% compatibility with CB to maintain the same melting profile as CB. CBS synthesised by enzymatic glycerolysis of coconut oil and palm stearin blends has the potential to partially replace CB.

The impact of glycerol monostearate's similarity to fats and fatty acid composition of fats on fat crystallization, destabilization, and texture properties of ice cream.

Fat significantly affects the properties of ice cream. Prior studies have investigated the correlation between fat crystallization, fat destabilization, and ice cream quality. However, the role of fatty acid composition, the similarity between fat and emulsifier in these characteristics, and their impact on final product quality remains unclear. To investigate the influence of the fatty acid composition of fats, as well as their similarity to glycerol monostearate (GMS), on fat crystallization and destabilization during the aging and freezing stages, ice creams were formulated using a combination of two types of fats (coconut oil and palm olein) in five different ratios. In oil phases, decreased saturation of fatty acids (from 93.38% to 46.69%) and increased similarity to GMS (from 11.96% to 46.01%) caused a reduction in the maximum solid fat content. Moreover, the rise in unsaturated long-chain fatty acids (from 34.61% to 99.57%) and similarity to GMS enhanced the formation of rare and coarse fat crystals, leading to a sparse crystalline network. This, in turn, reduced the crystallization rate and the stiffness of the fat in emulsions. Assuming consistent overrun across all ice creams, the enhanced interactions between fat globules in ice cream improved its hardness, melting properties, and shrinkage. The crystalline properties of fat in emulsions were influenced by oil phases, impacting fat destabilization and ultimately enhancing the quality of ice cream. The present study offers valuable insights for the optimization of fat and monoglyceride fatty acid ester selection, with the potential to improve ice cream quality. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Beef tallow/lard blends in O/W emulsions: Characterization of fat crystals, partial coalescence, rheology, and aeration performance

This study aimed to find new strategies for enhancing the stability and texture properties of aerated emulsion by combining different animal fats with different ratios. Beef tallow (BT)/ lard (LA) were mixed at different ratios to prepare oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, with and without aeration. The compatibility, crystallization behavior, stability, and rheology in both O/W and aerated emulsion systems prepared with BT/LA binary blends were further investigated. Larger and inhomogeneous β′ and β crystal mixtures appeared as the BT ratio increased. Monotectic or eutectic interaction was displayed according to different BT/LA ratios, solid fat content (SFC) and temperatures. O/W emulsion prepared with BT/LA binary showed higher apparent viscosity with larger fat globules distributed as the BT ratio increased. BT had higher SFC at any given temperature and the fat globule aggregation extent was higher. Partial coalescence occurred as the LA ratio increased when SFC < 35 %. Higher foam firmness of the aerated emulsion was achieved by BT/LA binary with higher BT ratios. As a result, combining BT and LA with different ratios achieved higher emulsion stability and foam properties. This study provides a novel insight into the application of different animal fats and the improvement of high-quality whippable products.

Effect of interesterification catalyzed by glycerol-K2CO3 deep eutectic solvents on the physicochemical properties of lard

Modified lards were prepared through interesterification catalyzed by glycerol:K2CO3-based deep eutectic solvents. The physicochemical properties of these lards with various interesterification degrees (IDs) were determined for investigating the effects of IDs on their physicochemical characteristics. Fatty acid (FA) compositions of the modified lards were almost unchanged, however FA composition at sn-2 position significantly changed with IDs increasing. As IDs increased, Free FAs and monoacylglycerols in modified lards increased slightly, diacylglycerols raised, and triacylglycerols decreased; among triacylglycerols, trisaturated triacylglycerols and triunsaturated triacylglycerols increased gradually. Compared with original lard, modified lards had relatively flatter solid fat content curves. Modified lards with higher IDs (over 50%) had higher slip melting points and distinctive thermal property. The polymorphism of lards transformed from β to β′-form with IDs increasing, but the stacking pattern of crystals was unchanged. The micromorphology of interesterified lards was much finer indicating that the sandiness of original lard was modified after interesterification. The crystallization behaviors of modified lards at 20 °C were affected by IDs, which was distinctly different from that of original lard. The interesterified lards with higher IDs (over 50%) were more suitable as shortenings in comparison with the original lard.

Evaluation of high oleic sunflower oil oleogels with beeswax, beeswax-glyceryl monopalmitate, and beeswax-Span80 in cookie preparation.

Shortening is used widely in cookie preparation to improve quality and texture. However, large amounts of saturated and trans fatty acids present in shortening have adverse effects on human health, and much effort has been made to reduce the use of shortening. The use of oleogels might be a suitable alternative. In this study, the oleogels of high oleic sunflower oil with beeswax (BW), BW-glyceryl monopalmitate (BW-GMP), and BW-Span80 (BW-S80) were prepared and their suitability to replace shortening in cookie preparation was evaluated. The solid fat content of BW, BW-GMP, and BW-S80 oleogels was significantly lower than that of commercial shortening when the temperature was not higher than 35 °C. However, the oil-binding capacity of these oleogels was almost similar to that of shortening. The crystals in the shortening and oleogels were β' form mainly; however, the morphology of crystal aggregates in these oleogels was different from that of shortening. The textural and rheological properties of doughs prepared with the oleogels were similar, and clearly different from those of dough with commercial shortening. The breaking strengths of cookies made with oleogels were lower than that of cookies prepared with shortening. However, cookies containing BW-GMP and BW-S80 oleogels were similar in density and color to those prepared with shortening. The textural properties and color of cookies with BW-GMP and BW-S80 oleogels were very similar to those of the cookies containing commercial shortening. The BW-GMP and BW-S80 oleogels could act as alternatives to shortening in the preparation of cookies. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization and comparison of physical properties and in vitro simulated digestion of multi-component oleogels with different molecular weights prepared by the direct method

Due to the hazards of trans fatty acids and saturated fatty acids to human health, research on novel structured lipid-oleogels as lipid substitutes has attracted increasing attention. However, oleogelators of different molecular weights, oils of different properties, and adding lipophilic bioactive substances (LBAS) and/or surfactants to the system lead to differences in oleogel properties. This study characterized and compared the physical properties and in vitro simulated digestion of different multi-component oleogels of carnauba wax oleogels (CWOs), β-sitosterol/lecithin oleogels (S/LOs), and ethyl cellulose oleogels (ECOs) prepared by the direct method. Oleogel strength decreased in the order ECOs > CWOs > S/LOs and peanut oil oleogels > soybean oil oleogels. Regardless of oleogel type, resveratrol (RE) loading and surfactant addition altered the self-assembly or co-assembly behavior of oleogels, which improved their hardness, oil binding capacity (OBC), thermal stability, solid fat content (SFC), viscoelasticity, and RE loading capacity/encapsulation efficiency. The network structure of the different oleogels and the molecular properties of the oleogelators led to differences in the in vitro digestion of multi-component oleogels. Differences in oleogel processing conditions altered their degree of lipolysis and the bioavailability of RE within it. This research sets the direction toward the development of healthier fat substitutes in the future.

Physical Blending of Fractionated Bambangan Kernel Fat Stearin and Palm Oil Mid-Fraction to Formulate Cocoa Butter Equivalent.

In this study, the physicochemical properties, composition, thermal properties, and crystal microstructure of fractionated bambangan kernel fat stearin and palm oil mid-fraction blends were investigated with respect to a potential cocoa butter equivalent. The blends were prepared in five ratios, and all of the blends exhibited similar physicochemical properties to cocoa butter. Although all of the blends had similar physicochemical properties, the blend containing 70% bambangan kernel fat stearin and 30% palm oil mid-fraction showed remarkable similarity to cocoa butter. The blend had similar fatty acid and triacylglycerol content to cocoa butter with 18.74% palmitic acids, 38.26% stearic acids, 34.05% oleic acids, 15.20% 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-oleoyl glycerol, and 29.74% 1,3-disteroyl-2-oleoyl glycerol with improved thermostability (high solid fat content at 30 °C but reaching 0% at 40 °C). It also exhibited spherulite crystals with a needle-like crystal structure of 50 µm. This mixture showed good compatibility with cocoa butter at all mixing ratios; hence, it is suggested as a potential cocoa butter equivalent.

Characterization of lipid systems based on fully hydrogenated soybean and high oleic sunflower oils to obtain nanostructured lipid carriers

Resistance to chemical degradation, a melting point above body temperature, biodegradability, and generally regarded as safe status are prerequisites for a lipid matrix to produce nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC). This study aimed to evaluate the composition and physical and crystallization properties of lipid systems composed of fully hydrogenated soybean oil (FHSO) and high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO). The lipid systems were characterized by their composition in fatty acids and triacylglycerol (TAG), thermal behavior during melting and crystallization, solid fat content (SFC), microscopical features, and polymorphism. Elevated HOSO in lipid systems promoted an increase in unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) and di- and tri-unsaturated TAG, a reduction in SFC and in crystalized areas and variations in thermal behavior. Excepted lipid system 10:90 FHSO:HOSO (w/w), all systems exhibited polymorphic stabilization in β form after 60 days. Findings of the present study demonstrated that the raw materials are compatible for the formulation of NLC.

Oxidative stability and characterization of oleogels obtained from safflower oil‐based beeswax and rice bran wax and their effect on the quality of cake samples

AbstractSafflower oil‐based oleogels were produced from beeswax and rice bran wax. Oleogels demonstrated higher oxidative stability than shortening at the cooking temperature. Peroxide values in shortening, rice bran wax oleogels, and beeswax oleogels samples were found in the range of 4.8–27.76, 13.21–20.45 and 4.30–7.72 meqO2kg−1 oil. Following oleogelation, there was no significant change in fatty acid composition of safflower oil. In addition, after baking process, the changes in the major fatty acids were not determined to be significant. Solid fat content ratios (carried out at 35°C) of rice bran wax oleogels, in beeswax oleogels and in shortening samples were defined in the range of 4.10%–7.70%, 0.80%–5.00%, and 9.61%, respectively. The highest oil binding capacity was revealed in beeswax oleogels with 99.93%–99.98%. The shortest crystallization time was determined as 3 min in oleogel containing 10% rice bran wax. Cakes consisted of oleogel were acceptable in terms of texture and sensory properties compared to cake produced with shortening. Sensory results revealed that some cakes produced with oleogels were found to be more acceptable as compared with control group samples. In this respect, oleogels produced with safflower oil‐based beeswax and rice bran wax could be used instead of commercial solid fat widely used in the cake industry.

Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism in the DGAT1 Gene with the Fatty Acid Composition of Cows Milked Once and Twice a Day.

A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs109421300 of the diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) on bovine chromosome 14 is associated with fat yield, fat percentage, and protein percentage. This study aimed to investigate the effect of SNP rs109421300 on production traits and the fatty acid composition of milk from cows milked once a day (OAD) and twice a day (TAD) under New Zealand grazing conditions. Between September 2020 and March 2021, 232 cows from a OAD herd and 182 cows from a TAD herd were genotyped. The CC genotype of SNP rs109421300 was associated with significantly (p < 0.05) higher fat yield, fat percentage, and protein percentage, and lower milk and protein yields in both milking frequencies. The CC genotype was also associated with significantly (p < 0.05) higher proportions of C16:0 and C18:0, higher predicted solid fat content at 10 °C (SFC10), and lower proportions of C4:0 and C18:1 cis-9 in both milking frequencies. The association of SNP with fatty acids was similar in both milking frequencies, with differences in magnitudes. The SFC10 of cows milked OAD was lower than cows milked TAD for all three SNP genotypes suggesting the suitability of OAD milk for producing easily spreadable butter. These results demonstrate that selecting cows with the CC genotype is beneficial for New Zealand dairy farmers with the current payment system, however, this would likely result in less spreadable butter.

Sustainability on Bread: How Fiber-Rich Currant Pomace Affects Rheological and Sensory Properties of Sweet Fat-Based Spreads

Dietary fiber may contribute to increasing the nutritional value of "unhealthy food"-for instance, spreads with high fat and sugar content. The high amount of fiber and the presence of phenolic compounds, organic fruit acids, and aroma compounds make currant pomace a promising ingredient to be used in a wide range of foods. However, the particle size of this by-product is a key factor influencing texture, rheology, physical stability, and sensory properties of the final commodities. Wet planetary ball milling of seedless currant pomace suspended in oil resulted in particles <30 µm, which is required for a creamy texture. Spread stiffness and viscosity were adapted by lowering the solid fat content in a way that the fruity spreads with 16 g/100 g pomace resembled a sweet commercial nut spread. The pomace showed stabilizing effects, as oil separation was reduced and a viscosity increase during storage was prevented. Principal component analysis after sensory flash profiling of five formulations highlighted differences in fruitiness, sweetness, greasiness, and viscosity. Hence, depending on the pomace level and fat composition in the formulation, the properties of sweet spreads can be specifically designed to fulfill the respective requirements. Additionally, sweet and savory wafer fillings provide great potential to be enriched with fruit pomace.

Novel disaturated triacylglycerol-rich fat from Garcinia mangostana: Lipid compositions, fatty acid distributions, triacylglycerol species and thermal characteristics

Mangosteen seed fat (MSF), a novel fat, was extracted from Garcinia mangostana L. that is cultivated widely in tropics of Asia and Africa. MSF was rich in stearic (57.9%), linoleic (20.3%) and oleic acids (16.0%), of which, 41.24% and 52.81% of linoleic and oleic acids occupied the sn-2 position and stearic acid were mainly connected to the sn-1,3 positions. Further triacylglycerol analysis showed that the fat was comprised of disaturated triacylglycerols, predominantly 31.47% SOS, 31.67% SLS, 12.31% PLS, and 7.82% of POS. The relatively uniform triacylglycerol structure contributed to a steep solid fat content profile as temperature increased from 25° to 35°C. MSF and its binary blends with 20% cocoa butter tended to exhibit stable β′ crystal structure with or without tempering, which might be attributed to steric hindrance from linoleoyl moieties. Our results suggest that MSF may be particularly suitable for the manufacture of fat bases for mucosal delivery tablets, skincare products, and cosmetics, where the IV crystal form structures are required.

Baking using oleogels

Baking using oleogels

Effect of anhydrous milk fat fraction addition to butter on water loss reduction

Anhydrous milk fat (AMF) and AMF fractionated at 20, 25, and 30 °C were used in butter making to evaluate their effect on water loss (WL) and physical properties of butter. AMF and AMF fractions were incorporated into butter either in the cream before churning or in the working step. When AMF and AMF fractions were added, the cream method resulted in samples with decreased WL with high melting AMF fractions; the worked procedure butters had decreased WL with lower melting AMF fractions. The cream method WL had a significant positive correlation with water content and a significant negative correlation with hardness, crossover point, solid fat content (5–20 °C), enthalpy, and content of palmitic and oleic fatty acids (P < 0.05). The WL of worked method had a significant positive correlation with hardness, solid fat content at 5–20 °C, and myristic fatty acids (P < 0.05).

Improvement of chocolate heat resistance with illipé butter stearin addition

SummaryThe potential for using illipé butter stearin (IBS) as cocoa butter improver (CBI) in chocolate was investigated in this work. IBS was blended with cocoa butter (CB) in different weight ratios and solid fat content (SFC), crystallisation/melting thermograms, morphology and polymorphism of the blends as well as compatibility between IBS and CB were studied. IBS and CB exhibited a monotectic mixing behaviour, indicating that the two fats were compatible. Addition of 10%–25% IBS to CB increased SFC at all temperatures and the blends melted completely at body temperature. When IBS was added to dark chocolate (5% w/w of the final product), SFC, hardness and shape retention of the chocolate increased from those of the conventional dark chocolate made without IBS addition. Furthermore, fat bloom formation developed more slowly in the chocolate containing IBS. The results indicated that IBS increased heat resistance and fat bloom stability in chocolate without leaving waxy mouthfeel. Therefore, IBS has a high potential to be used as CBI for the chocolate industry.

Characterization, fractionation, and compatibility properties of Litsea cubeba kernel oil with potential value for industrial application as a lauric acid-based oil source

Litsea cubeba kernels, produced as a by-product of L. cubeba essential oil, are rich in oils, particularly lauric acid. However, they are not adequately utilized. In this paper, L. cubeba kernel oil (LKO) was compared to traditional lauric acid-based oils (coconut oil [CNO] and palm kernel oil [PKO]) and a palmitic acid-based oil (palm olein, POL) to assess their compatibility and physicochemical differences. LKO fractions with various melting points were obtained. The fractions were analyzed for their acylglycerol composition, solid fat content, crystallization characteristics, polymorphism, and microstructure. LKO exhibited a complex fatty acid composition, including trace amounts of stearic acid (0.51%) and myristoleic acid (1.3%); small amounts of lauroleic acid (7.70%), capric acid (9.11%), and caprylic acid (10.89%); and a high amount of lauric acid (54.13%). The lauric acid content of the solid phase (LKST5) could be increased to 67.04 ± 0.96% after fractionation. In contrast to conventional lauric acid-based oils, LKO and its fractions are dominated by the β-form. In addition, the binary systems LKO/CNO and LKO/PKO displayed eutectic phenomena at XLKO= 0.9 and XLKO= 0.8, respectively. LKO/POL compatibility changed with increasing LKO ratio, gradually shifting from monotectic to eutectic to solid solutions. By analyzing the compatibilities and fractionation properties of LKO, potential industrial applications such as biodiesel and biolubricants can be explored. These uses would help promote the comprehensive use of oil by-products derived from oilseeds.