Solar Glass Research Articles

Using solar microreactors and photocatalysts to synthesize biodiesel

This paper investigates the transesterification of waste cooking oil using TiO2, CuO, and GO as catalysts in solar plain and helical glass microreactors. Catalyst properties were determined through XRD, SEM, and FT-IR analyses. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize biodiesel production, with GO catalyst and helical microreactor proving most effective due to their unique geometry. The highest biodiesel purity was achieved with GO at 99.98%, followed by TiO2 at 95.78% and CuO at 93.55%, all with a 3% catalyst dose, 200 s residence time, and oil-to-methanol volume ratio of 2. The study utilized solar energy and glass microreactors, resulting in a 94% reduction in energy consumption.

Highly transparent, durable, and omniphobic liquid-like coatings for efficient dynamic de-wetting and self-cleaning applications

Solar cells, which are contributing significantly to achieving carbon neutrality but suffer from the dust deposition problem that limits their power conversion efficiency. Despite the many desirable properties of self-cleaning coatings to improve the efficiency of solar cells, one formidable challenge in designing coatings for their practical applications lies in integrating transparency, durability, and self-cleaning properties. Herein, we report a multifunctional, durable, and omniphobic liquid-like FEVE-g-PDMS coating, which was readily prepared by embedding highly flexible polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chains as dynamic de-wetting agent into the fluorinated ethylene-(hydroxyl-alkyl) vinyl ether (FEVE) matrix. The resultant coating exhibited low roughness and high transparency (89.72 % at 550 nm, the air was used as reference), which could be applied to the protective solar cover glass by facile spraying technique. The PDMS chains with high mobility were enriched on the coating surface and could dynamically rotate/bend/stretch to reduce the energy barriers for the moving liquids, endowing coating with unprecedented dynamic de-wetting property. Importantly, the coating demonstrated self-cleaning property, which could readily slide the liquid and dust contaminants off, resulting in a high efficiency recovery ratio for solar cells (95.37 %). Besides, the coating showed strong adhesion, and durability to ultraviolet rays, humidity and thermal atmospheres, and chemical media. Therefore, the synthetic omniphobic liquid-like coating holds great promise for the development of innovative self-cleaning materials with versatility and durability that are not realizable with conventional solid interface engineering.

Experımental investıgatıon and mathematıcal modelıng of a novel solar thermoelectrıc generator incorporated with thermal condensing system

This study presents an investigation of the electrical energy output capability of a new thermoelectric generator system and reports on its design and fabrication. It was aimed to increase the current and voltage values by connecting six thermoelectric generators (TEGs) in series and parallel using a system with efficient thermal conversion. In this way, usable electrical energy was produced. The constructed system consists of heat pipes with solar glass tubes for collecting solar irradiance, a heat exchanger with an active cooling system for cooling, thermoelectric (TE) modules that were sandwiched between the upper heat chamber and heat sink, and a lower heat chamber adapted to heat pipes. The efficiency of electrical energy production in the system depends on the proper circulation of the working fluid in the system and active cooling. Numerical parameters such as open circuit voltage, solar irradiance and temperature values were collected from various parts of the constructed system, while electrical parameters such as short circuit current, maximum power output and Seebeck coefficient were obtained through calculation. Experimental measurements were taken at 41° 14′ N, 36° 26′ E with sea level on August 1, 6, and 8, 2019 and July 2, 3, and 4 of 2020. The data was collected from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m. The data of July 2 and 3, 2020, with the greatest numerical values, were used in the experimental presentation. The highest value of open circuit voltage was obtained 7.52 V on July 3, 2020, whereas the solar irradiance value was measured 662 W/m2. As a result, the value of maximum output power was calculated as 5.236 W. Following the experimental investigation, a numerical model with TEGs and a hybrid cooling system was developed. The developed model was validated against the data of open-circuit voltage, cold side and water outlet temperatures obtained from six different experimental tests. When the findings were analyzed, it was discovered that the developed model produced results that were compatible with the experimental measurements.

Mesoporous aluminium titanate: Superhydrophilic and photocatalytic antireflective coating for solar glass covers with superior mechanical properties

In this study, the results of non-stoichiometric mesoporous aluminum titanate (mp-AlxTiOy) coating using sol-gel-based block copolymers assisted evaporation-induced self-assembly (EISA) have been presented. Here, a remarkably durable superhydrophilic coating with photocatalytic and anti-reflecting properties has been reported. With a Vicker's Hardness of 899 HV, mp-AlxTiOy coating on glass substrate indicates outstanding mechanical durability when exposed to the outside environment. Further, conventional accelerated ageing tests like the UV exposure test, damp-heat test, and saline resistance test were conducted to evaluate the endurance of the coating. By measuring the water contact angle, it has been proven that this coating is superhydrophilic. It has been shown through time-dependent degradation of (methylene blue, MB) dye; mp-AlxTiOy possesses photocatalytic capabilities similar to mp-TiO2. Additionally, the mp-AlxTiOy coatings were found to exhibit improved optical transmittance and a reduced refractive index value. The power gain of a conventional Si solar cell was finally studied by examining the I–V characteristics of mp-AlxTiOy coated glass coupons attached to the solar cell.

Simulation of left-handed materials for GaAs solar cells

The optical performance of photovoltaic solar cells and modules is affected by the significant reflection losses at the air/glass front interface. Several antireflection coating materials on solar glass are introduced to overcome this drawback as a mechanism for light trapping. We propose in this study a novel structure containing silicon nitride (SiNx), left-handed materials (LHMs), and the light absorbing material (gallium arsenide, GaAs), to minimize the reflection and increase the light absorption. The transfer matrix method was used to compute the reflectivity and absorption of both normal and transverse magnetic polarized light. The results show that left-handed materials have an available good impact on the efficiency of solar cells by increasing the light absorption through the proposed structure where the absorbance achieves values greater than 80% in the entire light spectrum.

Visible light active and self-cleaning SiO2/N-TiO2 heterostructure surface with high transmittance for solar module glass cover: Experimental and DFT insights

Transparent, anti-reflective, visible-light-driven photocatalytically active and superhydrophilic heterostructure coating have been synthesized on glass substrates. Heterostructures consist of SiO2 as an anti-reflective layer at the bottom and nitrogen-doped TiO2 (N-TiO2) with varying concentrations (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 wt%) at the top for visible-light-driven photocatalytic active surface. Porosity is induced in both materials by introducing a suitable pore-forming agent for better anti-reflective properties. Doped samples exhibited excellent photocatalytic activity in the sunlight owing to the significant absorption in the visible region, confirmed by experimental and theoretical studies. Disintegration and cleaning of pollutants are demonstrated by photodegradation of methylene blue (MB) dye solution. Optimized heterostructure exhibited 5% greater optical transmittance than pristine TiO2. The hydrophilicity of heterostructure also varies with nitrogen doping concentration and is found to be minimum (11.9º) for SiO2/2.5 N-TiO2. Simultaneous self-cleaning and high optical transmittance of SiO2/N-TiO2 support the removal of fine contaminants under sunlight irradiation. At the same time, it contributes to the enhancement of transmitting incident light to the absorber layer of the solar cell. These heterostructures are highly suitable for bifunctional, self-cleaning and anti-reflective coating applications on building glass and photovoltaic glass covers.

Thermal performance of a novel double-glazed window combining PCM and solar control glass in summer

The integration of PCM into glazed envelope to enhance its thermal inertia has shown great energy-saving potential. However, this could bring indoor overheating in summer due to the insufficient heat insulation for solar radiation in pure PCM glazed units. This work proposed a composite double-glazed window incorporating PCM and solar control glass, and numerically investigated its thermal behaviors under sunny and cloudy conditions in summer of northern China. The effects of glass optical properties, involving absorption coefficient and refractive index, on the phase change cycling, indoor thermal comfort and building energy efficiency were analyzed. The results show that the increase of glass absorption coefficient facilitates the melting of PCM, but degrades the thermal comfort, even resulting in overheating risk on the sunny day. Moreover, as the absorption coefficient and refractive index of glass increase, the energy efficiency of PCM window equipped with solar control glass instead of general glass can be improved remarkably, and the influence of refractive index is more drastic than that of absorption coefficient. On the sunny day, the energy saving rate is 14.25% for the glass absorption coefficient of 160 m−1, which is 41.53% for the glass refractive index of 3.

Effect of inhomogeneous loads on the mechanics of PV modules

AbstractIn contrast to homogeneous mechanical load according to IEC 61215, photovoltaic modules in the field are mainly exposed to inhomogeneous loads like snow or wind. This paper deals with such inhomogeneous loads using computational fluid dynamics and finite element method simulations. Temperatures different to room temperature and the choice of encapsulates have significant influences on the thermomechanics of a photovoltaic module in case of snow load. Polyolefin is the encapsulant with the lowest storage modulus and has the lowest overall stress in solar cells and glass down to −30°C. Furthermore, with colder temperatures, the first principal stress decreases in solar cells but increases in the glass. For wind loads, the impact of module orientation, wind direction, module inclination angle, and wind speed is analyzed. A crosswind scenario is found to be most critical. Additionally, as a rule of thumb, higher module inclination angles result in higher stresses. Finally, general thermomechanical rules are extracted allowing for a deeper understanding of the underlying effects and therefore help to build more robust modules in the future.

Accelerated damp-heat testing at the cell-level of bifacial silicon HJT, PERC and TOPCon solar cells using sodium chloride

Bifacial passivated emitter and rear cells (PERC) currently have the highest share in the photovoltaic market. However, heterojunction (HJT) and tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) solar cells are expected to gain significant market share shortly. Despite technological advancements, concerns about the reliability of HJT and TOPCon technologies when deployed in the field still need to be addressed. This work investigates the impact of sodium chloride (NaCl) on damp-heat-induced degradation in bifacial HJT, PERC, and TOPCon solar cells by exposing the solar cells to NaCl before damp heat (DH) testing. It is found that among all investigated cell technologies, TOPCon solar cells degrade the most with maximum power (Pmax) loss of up to ∼75%rel, followed by HJT (Pmax drops ∼50%rel), and PERC cells (Pmax drops only ∼10%rel) after 20 h of DH testing, mainly attributed to an increase in Rs on the front side of TOPCon cells, both sides of HJT cells and the rear side of PERC cells. The front of the PERC and the rear of the TOPCon solar cell are found to be stable. The rise in Rs is attributed to the corrosion of the metal contact, which is caused by a high amount of Na+ and Cl− ions penetrating the metal contact. This corrosion leads to increased porosity, detachment of the contact from the silicon interface, and increased recombination loss in some cases. These results are crucial for all cell technologies as they highlight the potential failures that could occur in the field. Na+ and/or Cl− ions are common contaminants present in solar glass, human fingerprints, soldering flux, rainwater, soil/dust, and seawater. During field operation, these ions have the potential to penetrate and directly interact with solar cells. In our view, the preferred solution is for the solar cells to be corrosion-resistant, which can be rapidly assessed using the method presented in this work.

Optimization of synthesis parameters for the preparation of zeolite by reusing industrialwaste as raw material: Sandblasting waste and solar panel waste glass

This paper describes the use of sandblasting waste (SW) and solar panel waste glass (SPWG) as raw materials in the hydrothermal synthesis of Linde-type A zeolite (zeolite A) with crystallinity (83.89%) matching that of samples in the literature. ANOVA results indicated the following optimal synthesis parameters: crystallization temperature (120 °C), crystallization time (36 h), and Si/Al molar ratio (SAMR = 2.0). Model fitting results (R2 = 0.94) revealed a strong correlation between our regression results and experiment results, with the P value meeting the 95% confidence level. Experiment results confirmed the efficacy of the proposed hydrothermal processing method in synthesizing zeolite A using SPWG and waste SW as raw materials.

One step coating anti-reflective SiO2 film for silicon solar cells applications by atmospheric pressure plasma jet

By utilizing an atmospheric pressure plasma jet, a one-step deposition of anti-reflective silicon dioxide coating was successfully achieved on solar cover glass. A two-dimensional moving platform was utilized to coat large-area cover glass measuring 300 mm * 300 mm. Remarkably, at an input power of 40 W, the temperature of the cover glass remained as low as 59.4 °C. The impact of different motion patterns on the anti-reflective properties of the film was thoroughly investigated. Upon assembling the solar cells, a notable efficiency enhancement from 24.03% to 24.28% was observed. This method demonstrates promising prospects for repairing anti-reflective films on malfunctioning solar cell modules in photovoltaic power plants.

Analisis Efektivitas Daya Dan Energi Pada Sistem Pembersih Solar PV 2 × 50 Wp dengan Metode Lateral Movement

The implementation of the solar cell itself often has problems in its operation. One of the factors that affect the performance of PLTS is that the dirty solar panel cover glass is covered with dust or dirt so that it blocks the intensity of sunlight entering the solar panel which results in a reduced output of the solar panel. A 2x50 Wp solar pv cleaning tool was made to overcome the problem of reduced solar pv output due to the influence of dirt adhering to the pv cover glass. The cleaning tool that has been designed is expected to maximize the quality of power and energy that will be generated by solar pv. The solar pv dirt cleaning tool is used on the research object of the PLTS system in the Renewable Lab, Navy Building, State Polytechnic of Malang. Making a cleaning tool design using Solidworks software, with the reason being able to get a 3D picture of the planned pv dirt cleaner. The cleaning tool works with the help of a battery/power supply as its electrical power. There are 3 dc motors connected to brushes, wheels and water pumps. The cleaning tool moves in a lateral movement (sideways movement) from corner to corner 3 times, then the brush rotates to clean the solar cell cover glass from dirt. In the cleaning process, it can be assisted by using water provided and sprayed by a water pump. The average Vmp and Imp values are 19.72 V and 1.64 A. From the Vmp and Imp values, the average Pmp calculation results are 32.60 W for solar pv after cleaning. Before cleaning, the average maximum voltage (Vmp) and maximum current (Imp) values are 18.43 V and 1.05 A. From the Vmp and Imp values, the average Pmp calculation is 19.65 W.

Simulation of Colored BIPV Modules Using Angular-Dependent Spectral Responsivity

An accurate energy yield estimation for building-integrated photovoltaic (PV) applications with colored glass under field conditions is a key factor for architects, building planners, and potential investors. The power output of these installations depends not only on the angle of incidence but also on the incident solar spectrum. The aim of this work is to simulate the short-circuit current of PV single-cell laminates with colored solar glass under field conditions. Therefore, we use angular-dependent spectral responsivity measurement data from a physical setup. Test samples with gold-, blue-, blue-green-, and gray-colored solar glass and a reference with standard solar glass, oriented on a tilted surface, are simulated. The results for one month of field validation indicate a good agreement with a relative root mean square error between 1.9% and 2.5% for the test samples. A model comparison reveals larger errors for the blue, blue-green, and gold test samples when the spectral responsivity at normal incidence and the incident angle modifier for broadband direct irradiation are used instead. It is concluded that short-circuit current simulation using indoor characterization from spectrally resolved measurement setups provides improved accuracy that is particularly suitable for bankable energy yield estimates of colored building-integrated PV modules.

Manufacturing an Organic Solar Cell and Comparing with Different Dyes

A solar cell was manufactured from local materials and was dyed using dyes extracted from different organic plants. The solar cell glass slides were coated with a nano-porous layer of Titanium Oxide and infused with two types of acids, Nitric acid and Acetic acid. The organic dyes were extracted from Pomegranate, Hibiscus, Blackberry and Blue Flowers. They were then tested and a comparison was made for the amount of voltage they generate when exposed to sunlight. Hibiscus sabdariffa extract had the best performance parameters; also Different plants give different levels of voltage.

Design and Preparation of Anti-Reflection Nanoarray Structure on the Surface of Space Solar Cell Glass Cover

Space solar cell glass covers require high radiation resistance and wide-spectrum high light transmittance. The existing research on the preparation of thin films or special optical structures on the surface of solar cells rarely involves systematic research and the precise control of the high transmittance structural parameters of specific spectral bands by glass covers. Nanoarray structures were designed and constructed on high-purity quartz glass covers, achieving high anti-reflection within the 350–1100 nm range, the high energy part of the solar spectrum on Mars, regardless of the preparation of antireflective film and its radiation resistance. First, G-Solver software package was used to establish a nanoarray structure model according to the equivalent medium theory, and the effects of structural parameters such as the grating period, grating depth, and duty cycle on the glass cover transmittance were investigated. The results show that when the grating period is 50–200 nm, the transmittance ranges from 97.8% to 99.9%. When the grating period further increases from 300 nm, the lowest point of the transmittance spectrum moves to the longwave direction, and the transmittance from 350 nm to the lowest transmittance point significantly reduces. The optimal grating depth is 500 nm for a 300 nm grating period, the transmittance at 350 nm reaches 88.91%, and the average transmittance is 98.23%. When the period is 300 nm and the depth is 500 nm, the optimal duty cycle is 0.67, the transmittance at 350 nm reaches 96.52%, and the average transmittance is 99.23%. Nanoarray structures were constructed on the glass covers with nanoimprint and plasma etching, then modified with atomic layer deposition (ALD) to adjust their depth and duty cycle. The influence rules of the grating period, depth, and duty cycle on the cover transmittance from the experimental results are basically consistent with those from the simulation calculation. The nanoarray structure increases the average transmittance within 350–1100 nm of the glass cover by an average of 2.02% and the peak transmittance by 2.66%. The research results and experimental methods of this study have application value and promotion prospects for improving the photoelectric conversion efficiency of space solar cells and ground solar cells.

Effect of ZnO on structure and luminescence properties of Ce3+-Yb3+ co-doped Na2O–CaO–SiO2–Al2O3 glasses for solar panel applications

The Ce3+-Yb3+ co-doped Na2O–CaO–SiO2–Al2O3–ZnO glasses were prepared by the melt-quenching method. The effects of ZnO replacing CaO on the structure and luminescent properties of glass were studied. The thermodynamic temperature and thermal stability of the glasses were determined by DSC. The change in the glass network structure was analyzed by FT-IR spectra. The excitation spectrum, emission spectrum and fluorescence lifetime of Ce3+ in glass were determined by fluorescence spectrometer. The down-conversion luminescence spectra of Ce3+-Yb3+ ions excited at 355 nm were measured. According to the emission spectra of Ce3+ ions under different excitation wavelengths, the multiple luminescence centers of Ce3+ ions are determined, and the chromaticity coordinates of CIE are calculated. Finally, the energy transfer between Ce3+ and Yb3+ was analyzed. The Ce3+-Yb3+ co-doped glass can convert ultraviolet and visible light to the response band of c-Si solar cells, so it is an ideal candidate for solar panel glass.

Design and fabrication of dust removal nanoarray structure on the surface of solar cell glass cover

A nanoarray structure was constructed on the quartz glass cover surface, which had both strong dust removal ability and significant anti-reflection. Firstly, a structure model of dust removal nanoarray was established to investigate the effects of the structural parameters such as the period, the depth, and the duty ratio. Then a nanoarray structure was prepared on the glass surface with nano-imprinting and plasma etching, then modified with atomic layer deposition to adjust its structural parameters. The results show that the dust removal performance of the glass cover improved by about 14% after being constructed a 500-nm period nanoarray structure. As the etching time and the number of deposited layers increased, the dust removal performance first increased and then decreased. After 30 min etching and 50 layers of atomic deposition, the nanoarray improved the dust removal performance of the glass cover by about 45%. Moreover, this nanoarray structure also had an obvious anti-reflection function, improving the transmittance within 350–1100 nm of the glass cover by 0.63% before dust fall, by 1.23% after the dust fall at a 30° inclination angle, and by 1.51% at a 60° inclination angle.

Comparative Optical Analysis of Imprinted Nano‐, Micro‐ and Biotextures on Solar Glasses for Increased Energy Yield

In modern photovoltaic (PV) systems such as bifacial and building‐integrated PV, a big share of sunlight impinges at large incident angles on the air‐to‐glass module interface. These designs exceedingly call for effective omnidirectional antireflective (AR) measures. Texturing of PV cover glasses can effectively mitigate reflection losses in a broad spectral and angular range. Numerous individual textures have been presented in the literature; however, the lack of consistent material stacks hinders a comparative evaluation. Herein, UV‐nanoimprint lithography is used to fabricate and analyze 12 different artificial and bioreplicated textures from nano‐ to mesoscale on glass. The angle‐resolved reflectance is examined for incident angles from 5° to 80° and analyzed the scattering properties. For example, the effect of the investigated textures on the annual energy yield is calculated for a tilted bifacial PV module located in Berlin, Germany. While well‐known moth‐eye nanostructures exhibit excellent AR behavior near‐normal incidence, their shallow angle performance is often not reported. The best‐performing textures exhibit features on microscale and a large surface enhancement factor, increasing the annual energy yield up to 5% when compared to nontextured devices. The results give clear design guidelines for textured glasses of future PV applications.

Optimal synthesis of zeolite materials for humidity control from recycled industrial waste: central composite design

This article examines the process of optimizing the parameters used in the alkali fusion/hydrothermal synthesis of zeolite materials from solar panel waste glass (SPWG) and sandblasting waste (SW). Central composite design (CCD) was used to assess the influence of SiO₂/Al₂O₃ molar ratio (X1), synthesis temperature (X2) and synthesis duration (X3) on the crystallinity (%) and moisture maximum adsorption capacity. The resulting zeolite materials were also characterized using X-ray diffraction, fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscope, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that all three process variables had a significant effect on the crystallinity and moisture maximum adsorption capacity, and that X3 had the most surprising effects. The optimal parameter set (X 1 = 2.0, X 2 = 120 °C, and X 3 = 48 h) resulted in the highest crystallinity (91.98%) and largest surface area (372.75 m2/g) due to a well-ordered structure with an average pore diameter of 2.11 nm and an overall pore volume of 0.197 cm3/g. As expected, these samples presented the highest 24-h moisture maximum adsorption capacity (66.75 g/m2). These results provide insight into the synthesis of low-cost environmentally-friendly zeolite materials from industrial waste.

Antireflection cum photocatalytic with superhydrophilic based durable single layer mesoporous TiO2 - ZrO2 coating surface for efficient solar photovoltaic application

The cover glass of the solar panel benefits greatly from the antireflection cum photocatalytic with durable superhydrophilic (SHF) coating on float glass, which is here referred to as solar cover glass (SCG). In this study, such coatings were coated as a single layer on SCG as a replacement for the glass that covers solar cells, and their performance was compared to that of the bare texture solar cover glass (TSCG) which available in market. Using the sol–gel dip-coating method, coatings were created from stable sol utilizing titanium (IV) isopropoxide (TTIP), zirconium (IV) oxychloride octahydrate (ZOC), and block co-polymer P123 (surfactant), then dried at 80 °C/2 h and heated for at 400 °C/h. The coatings were deposited on glass with dimensions of 150 mm × 150 mm and had a thickness of 186 ± 10 nm. They had a refractive index value of 1.4295±0.002 and water contact angle (WCA) of 5 – 6°. These coatings were found to be homogeneous and had good adhesion and pencil hardness ∼4H. The coatings' hardness and elastic modulus were also measured using the nano-indentation method with an optimum 500 µN stress and were found to be 0.7909 ± 0.05 GPa and 37.59 ± 1 GPa, respectively. The formation of mesoporous coating as observed by ATR FT-IR and the genesis of the Ti-O-Zr network structure was confirmed by TEM, FESEM, AFM and Raman spectroscopy analysis. Coated glass showed an increase of > 3 % in average transmission in the wavelength range of 700 to 1100 nm due to a lower RI value than substrate along with chemical and thermal stability of the coatings. Moreover, upto 5% increase in photocurrent density Jsc (mA/cm2) was found as compared to uncoated glass substrate (SCG). Furthermore, the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye under UV irradiation and analysis using Raman spectroscopy indicated the photocatalytic ability of the coatings. Its triple functional single layer coated float glass (SCG) is therefore anticipated to be helpful and effective as a replacement for TSCG for home to agricultural applications.